Coping in old age with extreme childhood trauma: Aging Holocaust survivors and their offspring facing new challenges

References

• Amir , M and Lev-Wiesel , R . 2003 . Time does not heal all wounds: Quality of life and psychological distress of people who survived the Holocaust as children 55 years later . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 16 : 295 – 299 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antonovsky , A , Maoz , B , Dowty , N and Wijsenbeek , H . 1971 . Twenty-five years later: A limited study of the sequelae of the concentration camp experience . Social Psychiatry , 6 : 186 – 193 .
   Google Scholar
• Baider , L , Peretz , T , Hadani , PE , Perry , S , Avramov , R and De-Nour , AK . 2000 . Transmission of response to trauma? Second generation Holocaust survivors’ reaction to cancer . American Journal of Psychiatry , 157 : 904 – 910 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barel, E., Van IJzendoorn, M.H., Sagi-Schwartz, A., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J. (in press). Surviving the Holocaust: A meta-analysis of the long-term sequelae of genocide. Psychological Bulletin.
   Google Scholar
• Bar-on , D , Eland , J , Kleber , RJ , Krell , R , Moore , Y , Sagi , A and Von IJzendoorn , MH . 1998 . Multigenerational perspectives on coping with the Holocaust experience: An attachment perspective for understanding the development sequelae of trauma across generations . International Journal of Behavioral Development , 22 : 315 – 338 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beeri , MS , Werner , P , Davidson , M , Schmidler , J and Silverman , J . 2003 . Validation of the modified telephone interview for cognitive status (TICS-m) in Hebrew . International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry , 18 : 381 – 386 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernstein , EM and Putnam , FW . 1986 . Development, reliability and validity of a dissociation scale . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 174 : 727 – 735 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boals , A . 2008 . Short communication: Intrusive thoughts and everyday cognitive failures in Holocaust survivors . Stress and Health , 24 : 401 – 405 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breznitz, S. (1982). Denial of stress. New York, NY: International Universities Press.
   Google Scholar
• Burnham , G , Lafta , R , Doocy , S and Roberts , L . 2006 . Mortality after the 2003 invasion of Iraq: A cross-sectional cluster sample survey . Lancet , 368 : 1421 – 1428 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlson , EB and Putnam , FW . 1993 . An update on the Dissociative Experiences Scale . Dissociation , 6 : 16 – 27 .
   Google Scholar
• Carmil , D and Breznitz , S . 1991 . Personal trauma and world view – Are extremely stressful experiences related to political attitudes, religion beliefs, and future orientation? . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 4 : 393 – 405 .
   Google Scholar
• Chodoff , P . 1986 . “ Survivors of the Nazi Holocaust ” . In Coping with life crises: An integrated approach , Edited by: Moos , RH . 407 – 415 . New York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cohen , K and Shmotkin , D . 2007 . Emotional ratings of anchor periods in life and their relations to subjective well-being among Holocaust survivors . Personality and Individual Differences , 43 : 495 – 506 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Danieli , Y . 1981 . On the achievement of integration in aging survivors of the Nazi Holocaust . Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry , 14 : 191 – 210 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Danieli , Y . 1998 . International handbook of multigenerational legacies of trauma , New York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• de Graaf , T . 1975 . Pathological patterns of identification in families of survivors of the Holocaust . Israel Annals of Psychiatry , 13 : 335 – 363 .
   Google Scholar
• de Jager , CA , Budge , MM and Clarke , R . 2003 . Utility of the TICS-M for the assessment of cognitive function in older adults . Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry , 18 : 318 – 324 .
   Google Scholar
• de Quervain , DJF , Kolassa , IT , Ertl , V , Onyut , PL , Neuner , F , Elbert , T and Papassotiropoulos , A . 2007 . A deletion variant of the α2b-adrenoceptor is related to emotional memory in Europeans and Africans . Nature Neuroscience , 10 : 1137 – 1139 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desmond , DW , Tatemichi , TK and Hanzawa , L . 1994 . The telephone interview for cognitive status (TICS): Reliability and validity in stroke sample . Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry , 9 : 803 – 807 .
   Google Scholar
• Erikson , EH . 1950 . Child and society , New York : Norton .
   Google Scholar
• Erikson , EH . 1987 . The life cycle completed , New York : Norton .
   Google Scholar
• Felsen , I . 1998 . “ Transgenerational transmission of effect of the Holocaust ” . In International handbook of multigenerational legacies of trauma , Edited by: Danieli , Y . 43 – 67 . New York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Fening , S and Levav , I . 1991 . Demoralization and social supports among Holocaust survivors . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 179 : 167 – 172 .
   Google Scholar
• Florian , V and Drori , Y . 1990 . Mental Health Inventory (MHI): Psychometric characteristics and normative data regarding the Israeli population . Psychology , 1 : 26 – 35 (Hebrew) .
   Google Scholar
• Frischholz , EJ , Braum , BG , Sachs , RG , Hopkins , L , Shaeffer , DM , Lewis , J and Schwartz , DR . 1990 . The Dissociative Experiences Scale: Further replication and validation . Dissociation , 3 : 151 – 153 .
   Google Scholar
• Goodman , GS , Quas , JA and Ogle , CM . 2009 . Child maltreatment and memory . Annual Review of Psychology , 61 : 325 – 351 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harel , Z , Kahana , B and Kahana , E . 1993 . “ Social resources and the mental health aging Nazi Holocaust survivors and immigrants ” . In International handbook of traumatic stress syndromes , Edited by: Wilson , JP and Raphael , B . 241 – 252 . New York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Harel , Z , Sollod , RN and Bognar , BJ . 1982 . Predictors of mental health among semi-rural aged . The gerontologist , 22 : 499 – 504 .
   Google Scholar
• Joffe , C , Brodaty , H , Luscombe , G and Ehrlich , F . 2003 . The Sydney Holocaust Study: Posttraumatic stress disorder and other psychological morbidity in an aged community sample . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 16 : 39 – 47 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahana , E , Kahana , B , Harel , Z and Rosner , T . 1988 . “ Coping with extreme trauma ” . In Human adaptation to human stress: From Holocaust to Vietnam , Edited by: Wilson , J , Harel , Z and Kahana , B . 55 – 79 . New York : Plenum press .
   Google Scholar
• Keinan-Boker , L , Vin-Raviv , N , Lipshitz , I , Linn , S and Barchana , M . 2009 . Cancer incidence in Israeli Jewish survivors of World War II . The Journal of National Cancer Institute , 101 : 1489 – 1500 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kennedy , F , Clarke , S , Stopa , L , Bell , L , Rouse , H , Ainsworth , C and Waller , G . 2004 . Towards a cognitive model and measure of dissociation . Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry , 35 : 25 – 48 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krell , R , Suedfeld , P and Soriano , E . 2004 . Child Holocaust survivors as parents: A transgenerational perspective . American Journal of Orthopsychiatry , 74 : 502 – 508 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krystal , H . 1981 . Integration and self-healing in posttraumatic states . Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry , 14 : 165 – 189 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Landau , R and Litwin , H . 2000 . The effects of extreme early stress in very old age . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 13 : 473 – 487 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leon , GR , Butcher , JN , Kleinman , M , Goldberg , A and Almagor , M . 1981 . Survivors of the Holocaust and their children: Current status and adjustment . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 4 : 503 – 516 .
   Google Scholar
• McGowan , P , Sasaki , A , D’Alessio , AC , Dymov , S , Labonté , B , Szyf , M and Meaney , MJ . 2009 . Epigenetic regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor in human brain associates with childhood abuse . Nature Neuroscience , 12 : 342 – 348 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nadler , A and Ben-Shushan , D . 1989 . Forty years later: Long term consequences of massive traumatization as manifested by Holocaust survivors from city and the Kibbutz . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 57 : 287 – 293 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niederland , WG . 1968 . Clinical observations on the “Survivor Syndrome” . The International Journal of Psychoanalysis , 49 : 313 – 315 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pavot , W and Diener , E . 1993 . Review of the satisfaction with life scale . Psychological Assessment , 5 : 164 – 172 .
   Google Scholar
• Peña , ED . 2007 . Lost in translation: Methodological consideration in cross-cultural research . Child Development , 78 : 1255 – 1264 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Putnam , FW . 1997 . Dissociation in children and adolescents: A developmental perspective , New York : Guilford press .
   Google Scholar
• Safford , F . 1995 . Aging stressors for Holocaust survivors and their families . Journal of Gerontological Social Work , 24 : 131 – 153 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sagi-Schwartz , A , Van IJzendoorn , MH and Bakermans-Kranenburg , MJ . 2008 . Does intergenerational transmission of trauma skip a generation? No meta-analytic evidence for tertiary traumatization with the third generation of Holocaust survivors . Attachment and Human Development , 10 : 1 – 17 .
   Google Scholar
• Sagi-Schwartz , A , Van IJzendoorn , MH , Grossmann , KE , Joels , T , Grossmann , K , Scharf , M and Alkalay , S . 2003 . Attachment and traumatic stress in female Holocaust child survivors and their daughters . American Journal of Psychiatry , 160 : 1086 – 1092 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shmotkin , D and Barilan , YM . 2002 . Expression of Holocaust experience and their relationship to mental symptoms and physical morbidity among Holocaust survivors patients . Journal of Behavioral Medicine , 25 : 115 – 134 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shmotkin , D and Lomranz , J . 1998 . Subjective well-being among Holocaust survivors: An examination of overlooked differentiations . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 75 : 141 – 155 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solomon , Z , Kotler , M and Mikulincer , M . 1988 . Combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder among second-generation Holocaust survivors: Preliminary findings . American Journal of Psychiatry , 145 : 865 – 868 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solomon , Z and Prager , E . 1992 . Elderly Israeli Holocaust survivors during the Persian Gulf War: A study of psychological distress . The American Journal of Psychiatry , 149 : 1707 – 1710 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinitz , LY . 1982 . Psycho-social effects of the Holocaust on aging survivors and their families . Journal of Gerontological Social Work , 4 : 145 – 152 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabachnick , BG and Fidell , LS . 2007 . Using multivariate statistics , Boston : Pearson Education .
   Google Scholar
• Van der Hal-Van Raalte , EAM , Bakermans-Kranenburg , MJ and Van IJzendoorn , MH . 2008 . Diurnal cortisol patterns and stress reactivity in child Holocaust survivors reaching old age . Aging and Mental Health , 12 : 631 – 639 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van der Linden , D , Keijsers , GPJ , Eling , P and Van Schaijk , R . 2005 . Work stress and attentional difficulties: An initial study on burnout and cognitive failure . Work and Stress , 19 : 23 – 36 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van IJzendoorn , MH , Bakermans-Kranenburg , MJ and Sagi-Schwartz , A . 2003 . Are children of Holocaust survivors less well-adapted? A meta-analytic investigation of secondary traumatization . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 16 : 459 – 469 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van IJzendoorn , MH and Schuengel , C . 1996 . The measurement of dissociation in normal and clinical populations: Meta-analytic validations of the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES) . Clinical Psychology Review , 16 : 365 – 382 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yehuda , R , Bierer , LM , Schmeidler , J , Aferiat , DH , Breslau , I and Dolan , S . 2000 . Low cortisol and risk for PTSD in adult offspring of Holocaust survivors . American Journal of Psychiatry , 157 : 1252 – 1259 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yehuda , R , Golier , JA , Halligan , SL and Harvey , PD . 2004 . Learning and memory in Holocaust survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder . Biological Psychiatry , 55 : 291 – 295 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yehuda , R , Golier , JA and Kaufman , S . 2005 . Circadian rhythm of salivary cortisol in Holocaust survivors with and without PTSD . American Journal of Psychiatry , 162 : 998 – 1000 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yehuda , R , Schmeidler , J , Wainberg , M , Binder-Brynes , K and Duvdevani , T . 1998 . Vulnerability to posttraumatic stress disorder in adult offspring of Holocaust survivors . American Journal of Psychiatry , 155 : 1163 – 1171 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar