How does cognitive reserve impact on the relationships between mood, rumination, and cognitive function in later life?

References

• Angel, L., Fay, S., Bouazzaoui, B., Baudouin, A., & Isingrini, M. (2010). Protective role of educational level on episodic memory aging: An event-related potential study. Brain and Cognition, 74, 312–323. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2010.08.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beekman, A.T., de Beurs, E., van Balkom, A.J., Deeg, D.J., van Dyck, R., & van Tilburg, W. (2000). Anxiety and depression in later life: Co-occurrence and communality of risk factors. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 89–95. Retrieved December 13, 2013, from http://journals.psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?Volume=157&page=89&journalID=13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhalla, R.K., Butters, M.A., Zmuda, M.D., Seligman, K., Mulsant, B.H., Pollock, B.G., & Reynolds, C.F. (2005). Does education moderate neuropsychological impairment in late-life depression? International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 20, 413–417. doi:10.1002/gps.1296
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bierman, E.J., Comijs, H.C., Jonker, C., & Beekman, A.T. (2005). Effects of anxiety versus depression on cognition in later life. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 13, 686–693. doi:10.1176/appi.ajgp.13.8.686
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bjelland, I., Dahl, A.A., Haug, T.T., & Neckelmann, D. (2002). The validity of the hospital anxiety and depression scale: An updated literature review. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 52, 69–77. doi:10.1016/S0022-3999(01)00296-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159. doi:10.1037.0033-2909.112.1.155
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Comas-Herrera, A., Wittenberg, R., Pickard, L., & Knapp, M. (2007). Cognitive impairment in older people: Future demand for long-term care services and the associated costs. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 22, 1037–1045. doi:10.1002/gps.1830
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crawford, J.R., Henry, J.D., Crombie, C., & Taylor, E.P. (2001). Normative data for the HADS from a large non-clinical sample. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40, 429–434. doi:10.1348/014466501163904
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, R.N., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). Cognitive inflexibility among ruminators and nonruminators. Cognitive Therapy & Research, 24, 699–711. doi:10.1023/A:1005591412406
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dennis, R.E., Boddington, S.J.A., & Funnel, N.J. (2007). Self-report measures of anxiety: Are they suitable for older adults? Aging and Mental Health, 11, 668–677. doi:10.1080/13607860701529916
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dotson, V.M., Beydoun, M.A., & Zonderman, A.B. (2010). Recurrent depressive symptoms and the incidence of dementia and mild cognitive impairment. Neurology, 75, 27–34. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181e62124
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fritsch, T., McClendon, M.J., Smyth, K.A., Lerner, A.J., Friedland, R.P., & Larsen, J.D. (2007). Cognitive functioning in healthy aging: The role of reserve and lifestyle factors early in life. The Gerontologist, 47, 307–322. doi:10.1093/geront/47.3.307
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallacher, J., Bayer, A., Fish, M., Pickering, J., Pedro, S., Dunstan, F., Ebrahim, S., & Ben-Shlomo, Y. (2009). Does anxiety affect the risk of dementia? Findings from the Caerphilly prospective study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 71, 659–666. doi:10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181a6177c
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garnefski, N., & Kraaij V. (2006). Relationships between cognitive emotion regulation strategies and depressive symptoms: A comparative study of five specific samples. Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 1659–1669. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.12.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaugler, J.E., Duval, S., Anderson, K.A., & Kane, R.L. (2007). Predicting nursing home admission in the US: A meta-analysis. BMC Geriatrics, 7, 13–26. doi:10.1186/1471-2318-7-13
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Geerlings, M.I., Bouter, L.M., Schoevers, R., Beekman, A.T.F., Jonker, C., Deeg, D.J.H., … Schmand, B. (2000). Depression and risk of cognitive decline and Alzheimer's disease. Results of two prospective community-based studies in the Netherlands. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 176, 568–575. doi:10.1192/bjp.176.6.568
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giannakouris, K. (2010). Regional population projections EUROPOP2008: Most EU regions face older population profile in 2030. Population and Social Conditions, Eurostat Statistics in Focus. Retrieved from http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-SF-10-001/EN/KS-SF-10-001-EN.PDF.
   Google Scholar
• Goveas, J.S., Espeland, M.A., Woods, N.F., Wassertheil-Smoller, S., & Kotchen, J.M. (2011). Depressive symptoms and incidence of mild cognitive impairment and probable dementia in elderly women: The women's health initiative memory study. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 59, 57–66. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2010.03233.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jefferson, A.L., Gibbons, L.E., Rentz, D.M., Carvalho, J.O., Manly, J., Bennett, D.A., & Jones, R.N. (2011). A life course model of cognitive activities, socioeconomic status, education, reading ability, and cognition. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 59, 1403–1411. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2011.03499.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaplan, R.F., Cohen, R.A., Moscufo, N., Guttmann, C., Chasman, J., Buttaro, M., … Wolfson, L. (2009). Demographic and biological influences on cognitive reserve. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 31, 868–876. doi:10.1080/13803390802635174
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kraaij, V., Pruymboom, E., & Garnefski, N. (2002). Cognitive coping and depressive symptoms in the elderly: A longitudinal study. Aging & Mental Health, 6, 275–281. doi:10.1080/13607860220142387
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kvaal, K., McDougall, F.A., Brayne, C., Matthews, F.E., & Dewey, M.E. (2008). Co-occurrence of anxiety and depressive disorders in a community sample of older people: Results from the MRC CFAS (Medical Research Council Cognitive Function and Ageing Study). International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23, 229–237. doi:10.1002/gps.1867
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyubomirsky, S., Kasri, F., & Zehm, K. (2003). Dysphoric rumination impairs concentration on academic tasks. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 309–330. doi:10.1023/A:1023918517378
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy, M., & O’Leary, E. (2010). Depression, cognitive reserve and memory performance in older adults. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 25, 665–671. doi:10.1002/gps.2404
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nasreddine, Z.S., Phillips, N.A., Bédirian, V., Charbonneau, S., Whitehead, V., Collin, I., … Chertkow, H. (2005). The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: A brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53, 695–699. doi:10.111/j.1532-5415.2005.53221.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 504–511. doi:10.1037/0021-843x.109.3.504
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2004). The response style theory. In C. Papageorgiou & A. Wells (Eds.), Depressive rumination: Nature, theory and treatment (pp. 107–124). Chichester: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Nucci, M., Mapelli, D., & Mondini, S. (2011). The Cognitive Reserve Questionnaire (CRIq): A new instrument for measuring the cognitive reserve. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 23, 218–226. doi:10.3275/7800
   Google Scholar
• Office for National Statistics. (2010). Standard occupational classification 2010. Volume 3. The National Statistics Socio-economic Classification (NS-SEC rebased on the SOC2010), Retrieved from http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/guide-method/classifications/current-standard-classifications/soc2010/soc2010-volume-3-ns-sec--rebased-on-soc2010--user-manual/index.html
   Google Scholar
• Paterniti, S., Verdier-Taillefer, M.H., Dufouil, C., & Alpérovitch, A. (2002). Depressive symptoms and cognitive decline in elderly people longitudinal study. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 181, 406–410. doi:10.1192/bjp.181.5.406
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Porter, V., Buxton, W.G., Fairbanks, L.A., Strickland, T., O’Connor, S.M., Rosenberg-Thompson, S., & Cummings, J.L., (2003). Frequency and characteristics of anxiety amongst patients with Alzheimer's disease and related dementias. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 15, 180–186. doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.15.2.180
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Potter, G.G., Helms, M.J., & Plassman, B.L. (2008). Associations of job demands and intelligence with cognitive performance among men in late life. Neurology, 70, 1803–1808. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000295506.58497.7e
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reppermund, S., Brodaty, H., Crawford, J.D., Kochan, N.A., Slavin, M.J., Trollor, J.N., … Sachdev, P.S. (2011). The relationship of current depressive symptoms and past depression with cognitive impairment and instrumental activities of daily living in an elderly population: The Sydney memory and ageing study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45, 1600–1607. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.08.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richards, M., & Deary, I.J. (2005). A life course approach to cognitive reserve: A model for cognitive aging and development? Annals of Neurology, 58, 617–622. doi:10.1002/ana.20637
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg, P.B., Mielke, M.M., Xue, Q.L., & Carlson, M.C. (2010). Depressive symptoms predict incident cognitive impairment in cognitive healthy older women. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18, 204–211. doi:10.1097/JGP.0b013e3181c53487
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salthouse, T.A. (2009). When does age-related cognitive decline begin? Neurobiology of Aging, 30, 507–514. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2008.09.023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh-Manoux, A., Marmot, M.G., Glymour, M., Sabia, S., Kivimaki, M., & Dugravot, A. (2011). Does cognitive reserve shape cognitive decline? Annals of Neurology, 70, 296–304. doi:10.1002/ana.22391
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snaith R.P., & Zigmond A.S. (1994). HADS: Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Windsor: NFER-Nelson.
   Google Scholar
• Snowdon, D.A. (2003). Healthy ageing and dementia: Findings from the nun study. Annals of Internal Medicine, 139, 450–454. Retrieved from http://www.uri.edu/pharmacy/rotationdescriptions/Snowdon_Wk1.pdf
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spinhoven, P.H., Ormel, J., Sloekers, P.P.A., & Kempen, G.I.J.M. (1997). A validation study of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) in different groups of Dutch subjects. Psychological Medicine, 27, 363–370. doi:10.1017/S0033291796004382
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spreen, O., & Strauss, E. (1991). A compendium of neuropsychological tests: Administration, norms, and commentary. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Stern, Y. (2009). Cognitive reserve. Neuropsychologia, 47, 2015–2028. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart, R. (2004). Depressive symptoms and cognitive decline – disentangling the effect of affect. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 75, 5–5. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2003.028399
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomsen, D.K. (2006). The association between rumination and negative affect: A review. Cognition and Emotion, 20, 1216–1235. doi:10.1080/02699930500473533
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tombaugh, T.N., Kozak, J., & Rees, L., (1999). Normative data stratified by age and education for two measures of verbal fluency: FAS and animal naming. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 14, 167–177. doi:10.1093/arclin/14.2.167
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tucker, A.M., & Stern, Y. (2011). Cognitive reserve in aging. Current Alzheimer Research, 8, 354–360. doi:10.2174/156720511795745320
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valenzuela, M.J., & Leon, I., Suo, C., Martinez-Piamba, D., Kochan, N., Brodaty, H., & Sachdev, P. (2013). Cognitive lifestyle in older persons: The population-based Sydney memory and ageing study. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 36, 87–97. doi:10.3233/JAD-130143
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valenzuela, M.J., & Sachdev, P. (2006). Brain reserve and cognitive decline: A non-parametric systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 36, 1065–1073. doi:10.1017/S0033291706007744
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valenzuela, M.J., & Sachdev, P. (2007). Assessment of complex mental activity across the lifespan: Development of the Lifetime of Experiences Questionnaire (LEQ). Psychological Medicine, 37, 1015–1025. doi:10.1017/S003329170600938X 
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Hooren, S.A., Valentijn, S.A., Bosma, H., Ponds, R.W., van Boxtel, M.P., & Jolles, J. (2005). Relation between health status and cognitive functioning: A 6-year follow-up of the Maastricht Aging Study. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 60, 57–60. doi:10.1093/geronb/60.1.P57
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vinkers, D.J., Gussekloo, J., Stek, M.L., Westendorp, R.G., & van der Mast, R.C. (2004). Temporal relation between depression and cognitive impairment in old age: Prospective population based study. British Medical Journal, 329, 881–884. doi:10.1136/bmj.38216.604664.DE
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• von Hippel, W., Vasey, M.W., Gonda, T., & Stern, T. (2008). Executive function deficits, rumination and late-onset depressive symptoms in older adults. Cognitive Therapy Research, 32, 474–487. doi:10.1007/s10608-006-9034-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watkins, E.R. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 163–206. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.163
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whalley, L.J., Dick, F.D., & McNeill, G. (2006). A life-course approach to the aetiology of late-onset dementias. The Lancet Neurology, 5, 87–96. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(05)70286-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, R.S., Barnes, L., & Bennett, D.A. (2003). Assessment of lifetime participation in cognitively stimulating activities. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25, 634–642. doi:10.1076/jcen.25.5.634.14572
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, B.A., Cockburn, J., & Baddeley, A.D. (2003). Rivermead behavioural memory test (2nd ed.). Bury St Edmunds: Thames Valley Test Company.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, R.S., de Leon, C.M., Bennett, D.A., Bienias, J.L., & Evans, D.A. (2004). Depressive symptoms and cognitive decline in a community population of older persons. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 75, 126–129. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1757443/pdf/v075p00126.pdf
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yates, J.A., Clare, L., & Woods, R.T. (2013). Mild cognitive impairment and mood: A systematic review. Reviews in Clinical Gerontology, 23, 317–356. doi:10.1017/S0959259813000129
   Google Scholar
• Yen, Y.C., Rebok, G.W., Gallo, J.J., Jones, R.N., & Tennstedt, S.L. (2011). Depressive symptoms impair everyday problem-solving ability through cognitive abilities in late life. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 19, 142–150. doi:10.1097/JGP.0b013e3181e89894
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar