Do cognitive leisure activities really matter in the relationship between education and cognition? Evidence from the aging, demographics, and memory study (ADAMS)

References

• Adam, S., Bonsang, E., Grotz, C., & Perelman, S. (2013). Occupational activity and cognitive reserve: Implications in terms of prevention of cognitive aging and Alzheimer's disease. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 8, 377–390. doi:10.2147/CIA.S39921
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allison, P.D. (2002). Missing data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (Rev. 3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Andel, R., Crowe, M., Pedersen, N.L., Mortmier, J., Crimmins, E., Johansson, B., & Gatz, M. (2005). Complexity of work and risk of Alzheimer's disease: A population-based study of Swedish twins. Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 60, P251–P258. doi:10.1093/geronb/60.5.P251
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basu, R. (2013). Education and dementia risk: Results from the Aging Demographics and Memory Study. Research on Aging, 35, 7–31. doi:10.1177/0164027511434086
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cacabelos, R., Martínez, R., Fernández-Novoa, L., Carril, J.C., Lombardi, V., Carrera, I., … Takeda, M. (2012). Genomics of dementia: APOE- and CYP2D6-related pharmacogenetics. International Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 2012, 518901. doi:10.1155/2012/518901
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Crowe, M., Andel, R., Pedersen, N.L., Johansson, B., & Gatz, M. (2003). Does participation in leisure activities lead to reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease? A prospective study of Swedish twins. Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 58, P249–P255. doi:10.1093/geronb/58.5.P249
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dartigues, J.F., Foubert-Samier A., Le Goff, M., Viltard, M., Amieva, H., Orgogozo, J.M., … Helmer, C. (2013). Playing board games, cognitive decline and dementia: A French population-based cohort study. BMJ Open, 3, e002998. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2013-002998
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Ronchi, D., Fratiglioni, L., Rucci, P., Paternicò, A., Graziani, S., & Dalmonte, E. (1998). The effect of education on dementia occurrence in an Italian population with middle to high socioeconomic status. Neurology, 50, 1231–1238. doi:10.1212/WNL.50.5.1231
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dewey, M.E., & Saz, P. (2001). Dementia, cognitive impairment and mortality in persons aged 65 and over living in the community: A systematic review of the literature. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 16, 751–761. doi:10.1002/gps.397
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher, G.G., Franks, M.M., Plassman, B.L., Brown, S.L., Potter, G.G., Llewellyn, D., … Langa, K.M. (2011). Caring for individuals with dementia and cognitive impairment, not dementia: Findings from the Aging, Demographics, and Memory Study. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 59, 488–494. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2010.03304.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gatz, M. (2005). Educating the brain to avoid dementia: Can mental exercise prevent Alzheimer disease? PLoS Medicine, 2(1), e7. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020007
   Google Scholar
• Gatz, M., Svedberg, P., Pedersen, N.L., Mortimer, J.A., Berg, S., & Johansson, B. (2001). Education and the risk of Alzheimer's disease: Findings from the study of dementia in Swedish twins. Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 56, P292–P300. doi:10.1093/geronb/56.5.P292
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heeringa, S.G., Fisher, G.G., Hurd, M., Langa, K.M., Ofestedal, M.B., Plassman, B.L., … Weir, D.R. (2009). Aging, Demographics and Memory Study (ADAMS): Sample design, weighting and analysis for ADAMS. University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research. Retrieved from http://hrsonline.isr.umich.edu/sitedocs/userg/ADAMSSampleWeights_Jun2009.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Karp, A., Paillard-Borg, S., Wang, H.-X., Silverstein, M., Winblad, B., & Fratiglioni, L. (2006). Mental, physical and social components in leisure activities equally contribute to decrease dementia risk. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 21, 65–73. doi:10.1159/000089919
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kliegel, M., Zimprich, D., & Rott, C. (2004). Life-long intellectual activities mediate the predictive effect of early education on cognitive impairment in centenarians: A retrospective study. Aging & Mental Health, 8, 430–437. doi:10.1080/13607860410001725072
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lachman, M.E., Agrigoroaei, S., Murphy, C., & Tun, P.A. (2010). Frequent cognitive activity compensates for education differences in episodic memory. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18, 4–10. doi:10.1097/JGP.0b013e3181ab8b62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langa, K.M., Plassman, B.L., Wallace, R.B., Herzog, A.R., Heeringa, S.G., Ofstedal, M.B., … Willis, R.J. (2005). The Aging, Demographics, and Memory Study: Study design and methods. Neuroepidemiology, 25, 181–191. doi:10.1159/000087448
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyketsos, C.G., Lopez, O., Jones, B., Fitzpatrick, A.L., Breitner, J., & DeKosky, S. (2002). Prevalence of neuropsychiatric symptoms in dementia and mild cognitive impairment: Results from the Cardiovascular Health Study. Journal of the American Medical Association, 288, 1475–1483. doi:10.1001/jama.288.12.1475
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson, C.B., Kessler, R.C., & Mroczek, D. (2001). Scoring the World Health Organization's composite international diagnostic interview short form. Harvard Medical School, Health Care Policy. Retrieved from http://www.hcp.med.harvard.edu/ncs/ftpdir/cidisf_readme.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Okura, T., & Langa, K.M. (2011). Caregiver burden and neuropsychiatric symptoms in older adults with cognitive impairment: The Aging, Demographics, and Memory Study (ADAMS). Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders, 25, 116–121. doi:10.1097/WAD.0b013e318203f208
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parisi, J.M., Rebok, G.W., Xue, Q.-L., Fried, L.P., Seeman, T.E., Tanner, E.K., … Carlson, M.C. (2012). The role of education and intellectual activity on cognition. Journal of Aging Research, 2012, 416132. doi:10.1155/2012/416132
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pawlowski, J., Remor, E., de Mattos Pimenta Parente, M.A., de Salles, J.F., Fonseca, R.P., & Bandeira, D.R. (2012). The influence of reading and writing habits associated with education on the neuropsychological performance of Brazilian adults. Reading and Writing, 25, 2275–2289. doi:10.1007/s11145-012-9357-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Percy, M., Somerville, M.J., Hicks, M., Colelli, T., Wright, E., Kitaygorodsky, J., … Garcia, A. (2014). Risk factors for development of dementia in a unique six-year cohort study: I. An exploratory, pilot study of involvement of the E4 allele of apolipoprotein E, mutations of the hemochromatosis-HFE gene, type 2 diabetes, and stroke. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 38, 907–922. doi:10.3233/JAD-131409
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen, R.C. (2004). Mild cognitive impairment as a diagnostic entity. Journal of Internal Medicine, 256, 183–194. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2796.2004.01388.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen R.C., Smith, G.E., Ivnik, R.J., Tangalos, E.G., Schaid, D.J., Thibodeau, S.N., … Kurland, L.T. (1995). Apolipoprotein E status as a predictor of the development of Alzheimer's disease in memory-impaired individuals. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 1274–1278. doi:10.1001/jama.1995.03520400044042
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen, R.C., Stevens, J.C., Ganguli, M., Tangalos, E.G., Cummings, J.L., & DeKosky, S.T. (2001). Practice parameter: Early detection of dementia: Mild cognitive impairment (an evidence-based review). Neurology, 56, 1133–1142. doi:10.1212/WNL.56.9.1133
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plassman, B.L., Langa, K.M., Fisher, G.G., Heeringa, S.G., Weir, D.R., Ofstedal, M.B., … Wallace, R.B. (2008). Prevalence of cognitive impairment without dementia in the United States. Annals of Internal Medicine, 148(6), 427–434.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plassman, B.L., Langa, K.M., McCammom, R.J., Fisher, G.G., Potter, G.G., Burke, J.R., … Wallace, R.B. (2011). Incidence of dementia and cognitive impairment, not dementia in the United States. Annals of Neurology, 70, 418–426. doi:10.1002/ana.22362
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Podewilis, L.J., Guallar, E., Kuller, L.H., Fried, L.P., Lopez, O.L., Carlson, M., & Lyketsos, C.G. (2005). Physical activity, APOE genotype, and dementia risk: Findings from the Cardiovascular Health Cognition Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 161, 639–651. doi:10.1093/aje/kwi092
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qui, C., Bäckman, L., Winblad, B., Agüero-Torres, H., & Fratiglioni, L. (2001). The influence of education on clinically diagnosed dementia incidence and mortality data from the Kungsholmen Project. Archives of Neurology, 58, 2034–2039. doi:10.1001/archneur.58.12.2034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rocca, W.A., Petersen, R.C., Knopman, D.S., Hebert, L.E., Evans, D.A., Hall, K.S., … White, L.R. (2011). Trends in the incidence and prevalence of Alzheimer's disease, dementia, and cognitive impairment in the United States. Alzheimer's & Dementia, 7, 80–93. doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2010.11.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sattler, C., Toro, P., Schönknecht, P., & Schröder, J. (2012). Cognitive activity, education and socioeconomic status as preventive factors for mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. Psychiatry Research, 196, 90–95. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2011.11.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scarmeas, N., & Stern, Y. (2003). Cognitive reserve and lifestyle. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25, 625–633. doi:10.1076/jcen.25.5.625.14576
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharp, E.S., & Gatz, M. (2011). Relationship between education and dementia: An updated systematic review. Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders, 25, 289–304. doi:10.1097/WAD.0b013e318211c83c
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• St John, P., & Montgomery, P. (2013). Does self-rated health predict dementia? Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 26, 41–50. doi:10.1177/0891988713476369
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steffens, D.C., Fisher, G.G., Langa, K.M., Potter, G.G., & Plassman, B.L. (2009). Prevalence of depression among older Americans: The Aging, Demographics and Memory Study. International Psychogeriatrics, 21, 879–888. doi:10.1017/S1041610209990044
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern, Y. (2002). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8, 448–460. doi:10.1017/S1355617702813248
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern, Y. (2003). The concept of cognitive reserve: A catalyst for research. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25, 589–593. doi:10.1076/jcen.25.5.589.14571
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern, Y. (2012). Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease. Lancet Neurology, 11, 1006–1012. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70191-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern, Y., Gurland, B., Tatemichi, T.K., Tang, M.X., Wilder, D., & Mayeux, R. (1994). Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease. Journal of the American Medical Association, 271, 1004–1010. doi:10.1001/jama.1994.03510370056032
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern, C., & Munn, Z. (2010). Cognitive leisure activities and their role in preventing dementia: A systematic review. International Journal of Evidence-Based Healthcare, 8, 2–17. doi:10.1111/j.1744-1609.2010.00150.x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Treiber, K.A., Carlson, M.C., Corcoran, C., Norton, M.C., Breitner, J.C.S., Piercy, K.W., … Tschanz, J.T. (2011). Cognitive stimulation and cognitive and functional decline in Alzheimer's disease: The Cache County Dementia Progression Study. Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 66B, 416–425. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbr023
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verghese, J., Lipton, R.B., Katz, M.J. Hall, C.B., Derby, C.A., Kuslansky, G., … Buschke, H. (2003). Leisure activities and the risk of dementia in the elderly. New England Journal of Medicine, 348, 2508–2516. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa022252
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, H.-X., Karp, A., Winblad, B., & Fratiglioni, L. (2002). Late-life engagement in social and leisure activities is associated with a decreased risk of dementia: A longitudinal study from the Kungsholmen project. American Journal of Epidemiology, 155, 1081–1087. doi:10.1093/aje/155.12.1081
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, H.-X., Xu, W., & Pei, J.-J. (2012). Leisure activities, cognition and dementia. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1822, 482–491. doi:10.1016/j.bbadis.2011.09.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, J.Y.J., Zhou, D.H.D., Li, J., Zhang, M., Deng, J., Tang, M., … Chen, M. (2006). Leisure activity and risk of cognitive impairment: The Chongqing aging study. Neurology, 66, 911–913. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000192165.99963.2a
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, R.S., Bennett, D.A., Beckett, L.A., Morris, M.C., Gilley, D.W., Bienias, J.L., … Evans, D.A. (1999). Cognitive activity in older persons from a geographically defined population. Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 54B, P155–P160. doi:10.1093/geronb/54B.3.P155
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, R.S., Mendes de Leon, C.F., Barnes, L.L., Schneider, J.A., Bienias, J.L., Evans, D.A., & Bennett, D.A. (2002). Participation in cognitively stimulating activities and risk of incident Alzheimer disease. Journal of the American Medical Association, 287, 742–748. doi:10.1001/jama.287.6.742
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar