1,019
Views
16
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Cognition and Cognitive Training

Cognitive training in the elderly: a randomized trial to evaluate the efficacy of a self-administered cognitive training program

Pages 1384-1394 | Received 21 May 2015, Accepted 06 Nov 2015, Published online: 08 Dec 2015

References

  • Agrigoroaei, S., & Lachman, M.E. (2011). Cognitive functioning in midlife and old age: Combined effects of psychosocial and behavioral Factors. Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 66, i130–i140. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbr017
  • Allen, D.N. (2011). Brief cognitive rating scale. In J.S. Kreutzer, J. DeLuca, & B. Caplan (Eds.), Encyclopedia of clinical neuropsychology (pp. 446–447). New York, NY: Springer.
  • Anekwe, L. (2013). Mental training offers best chance of halting cognitive decline, finds review. British Medical Journal, 346, 2567. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f2567
  • Au, J., Sheehan, E., Tsai, N., Duncan, G.J., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S.M. (2015). Fluid intelligence with training on working memory: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22, 366–377. doi:10.3758/s13423-014-0699-x
  • Axelrod, B.N. (2002). Validity of the Wechsler abbreviated scale of intelligence and other very short forms of estimating intellectual functioning. Assessment, 9, 17–23. doi:10.1177/1073191102009001003
  • Bailey, H., Dunlosky, J., & Hertzog, C. (2010). Metacognitive training at home: Does it improve older adults' learning? Gerontology, 56, 414–420. doi:10.1159/000266030
  • Ball, K., Berch, D.B., Helmers, K.F., Jobe, J.B., Leveck, M.D., Marsiske, M., … Willis, S.L. (2002). Effects of cognitive intervention with older adults: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of American Medical Association, 288, 2271–2281. doi:10.1001/jama.288.18.2271
  • Barr, A., & Brandt, J. (1996). Word-list generation deficits in dementia. Journal of Clinical Experimental Neuropsychology, 18, 810–822. doi:10.1080/01688639608408304
  • Beck, A.T., & Steer, R. (1990). The beck anxiety inventory. Austin, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
  • Belleville, S., & Bherer, L. (2012). Biomarkers of cognitive training effects in aging. Current Translational Geriatrics and Gerontology Reports, 1, 104–110. doi:10.1007/s13670-012-0014-5
  • Benedict, R.H.B., Schretlen, D., Groninger, L., & Brandt, J. (1998). The Hopkins verbal learning test-revised: Normative data and analysis of interform and test-retest reliability. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 12, 43–55. doi:10.1076/clin.12.1.43.1726
  • Bennett, I.J., & Madden, D.J. (2014). Disconnected aging: Vertebral white matter integrity and age-related differences in cognition. Neuroscience, 276, 187–205. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.11.026
  • Benton, A., & Hamsher, K. (1994). Multilingual aphasia examination (3rd ed.). Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
  • Bieliauskas, L.A., Depp, C., Kauszler, M.L., Steinberg, B.A., & Lacy, M. (2000). IQ and scores on the mini-mental state examination (MMSE). Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 7, 227–229. doi:10.1076/anec.7.4.227.799
  • Bowen, S., & Graham, I.D. (2013). Integrated knowledge translation. In S.E. Straus, J. Tetroe, & I.D. Graham (Eds.), Knowledge translation in health care: Moving from evidence to practice (2nd ed.) (pp. 14–23). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
  • Brandt, J., & Benedict, R.H.B. (2001). Hopkins verbal learning test-revised professional manual. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
  • Brink, T.L., Yesavage, J.A., Lum, O., Heersema, P. H., Adey, M., & Rose, T.S. (1982). Screening tests for geriatric depression. Clinical Gerontologist, 1, 37–43. doi:10.1300/J018v01n01_06
  • Brodziak, A., Wolińska, A., Kołat, E., & Różyk-Myrta, A. (2014). Guidelines for prevention and treatment of cognitive impairment in the elderly. Medical Science Monitor, 21, 585–597. doi:10.12659/MSM.892542
  • Buitenweg, J.I.V., Murre, J. M.J., & Ridderinkhof, R. (2012). Brain training in progress: A review of trainability in healthy seniors. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6(183), 1–11. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00183
  • Cavallini, E., Dunlosky, J., Bottiroli, S., Hertzog, C., & Vecchi, T. (2010). Promoting transfer in memory training for older adults. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 22, 314–323. doi:10.3275/6704.
  • Chapman, S.B., Aslan, S., Spence, J.S., Hart, J.J., Jr., Bartz, E. K., Didehbani, N., … Lu, H. (2015). Neural mechanism of brain plasticity with complex cognitive training in healthy seniors. Cerebral Cortex, 25, 396–405. doi:10.1093/cercor/bht234
  • Cheng, Y., Wu, W., Feng, W., Wang, J., Chen, Y., Shen, Y., … Li, C. (2012). The effects of multi-domain versus single-domain cognitive training in non-demented older people: A randomized controlled trial. Biomedcentral Medicine, 10, 30. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-10-30
  • Church, E., Cornish, P., Callanan, T., & Bathune, C. (2008). Integrating self-help materials into mental health practice. Canadian Family Physicians, 54, 1413–1417. Retrieved from http://www.cfp.ca/content/54/10/1413.full.pdf+html
  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • Crockett, D., Tuokko, H., Koch, W., & Parks, R. (1989). The assessment of everyday functioning using the Present Functioning Questionnaire and the Functional Rating Scale in elderly samples. Clinical Gerontologist, 8, 3–25. doi:10.1300/J018v08n03_02
  • Espino, D.V., Lichtenstein, M.J., Palmer, R.F., & Hazuda, H.P. (2004). Evaluation of the mini-mental state examination's internal consistency in a community-based sample of Mexican-American and European-American elders: Results from the San Antonio longitudinal study of aging. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 52, 822–827. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2004.52226
  • Fairchild, J.K., & Scogin, F.R. (2010). Training to Enhance Adult Memory (TEAM): An investigation of the effectiveness of a memory training program with older adults. Aging & Mental Health, 14, 364–373. doi:10.1080/13607860903311733.
  • Folstein, M.F., Folstein, S.E., & McHugh, P. R. (1975). ‘Mini-mental state.’ A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12, 189–198. doi: 0022-3956(75)90026-6
  • Foster, J.R., Sclan, S., Welkowitz, J., Boksay, I., & Seeland, I. (1988). Psychiatric assessment in medical long-term care facilities: Reliability of commonly used rating scales. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 3, 229–233. doi:10.1002/gps.930030310
  • Fydrick, T., Dowdall, D., & Chambless, D. (1992). Reliability and validity of the Beck Anxiety Inventory. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 6, 55–61. doi:10.1016/0887-6185(92)90026-4
  • Geake, J.G., & Hansen, P.C. (2010). Functional neural correlates of fluid and crystalized analogizing. Neuroimage, 49, 3489–3497. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.09.008
  • Gelinas, I., Gauthier, L., McIntyre, M.C., & Gauthier, S. (1999). Development of a functional measure for persons with Alzheimer disease: The disability assessment for dementia. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 53, 471–481. doi:10.5014/ajot.53.5.471
  • Golde, M., von Cramon, D.Y., & Schubotz, R.I. (2010). Differential role of anterior prefrontal and premotor cortex in the processing of relational information. Neuroimage, 49, 2890–2900. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.09.009
  • Gross, A.L., Parisi, J.M., Spira, A.P., Kueider, A.M., Ko, J.Y., Saczynski, J.S., … Rebok. G.W. (2012). Memory training interventions for older adults: A meta-analysis. Aging and Mental Health, 16, 722–734. doi:10.1080/13607863.2012.667783.
  • Hester, R.L., Kinsella, G.J., Ong, B., & Turner, M. (2004). Hopkins verbal learning test: Normative data for older Australian adults. Australian Psychologist, 39, 251–255. doi:10.1080/00050060412331295063
  • Hsiung, G.Y., Alipour, S., Jacova, C., Grand, J., Gauthier, S., Black S.E., … Feldman H.H. (2008). Transition from cognitively impaired not demented to Alzheimer's disease: An analysis of changes in functional abilities in a dementia clinic cohort. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 25, 483–90. doi:10.1159/000126499
  • Ibanez, A., Richly, P., Roca, M., & Manes, F. (2014). Methodological considerations regarding cognitive intervention in dementia. Frontier Aging Neuroscience, 13, 212. doi:10.3389/fnagi.2014.00212
  • Ivnik, R.J., Malec, J.F., Smith, G.E., Tangalos, E.G., & Petersen, R.C. (1996). Neuropsychological tests' norms above age 55: COWAT, BNT, MAE token, WRAT- R reading, AMNART, STROOP, TMT, and JLO. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 10, 262–278. doi:10.1080/13854049608406689
  • Jacobson, N.S., & Traux, P. (1991). Clinical significance: A statistical approach to defining meaningful change in psychotherapy research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 12–19. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.59.1.12
  • Jacoby, N., & Ahissar M. (2013). What does it take to show that a cognitive training procedure is useful? A critical evaluation. Progress in Brain Research, 207, 121–140. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-63327-9.00004-7
  • Jaeggi, S.M., Studer-Luethi, B., Buschkuehl, M., Su, Y., Jonides, J., & Perrig, W.J. (2010). The relationship between n-back performance and matrix reasoning – implications for training and transfer. Intelligence, 38, 625–635. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2010.09.001
  • Jaeggi, S.M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides J., & Shah, P. (2011). Short- and long-term benefits of cognitive training. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 10081–10086. doi:10.1073/pnas.1103228108
  • Jones, R.N., Marsiske, M., Ball, K., Rebok, G., Willis, S.L., Morris, J.N., & Tennstedt, S.L. (2013). The ACTIVE cognitive training intervention and trajectories of performance among older adults. Journal of Aging Health, 25, 186S–208S. doi:10.1177/0898264312461938.
  • Kabacoff, R., Segal, D. L., Hersen, M., & Van Hasselt, V.B. (1997). Psychometric properties and diagnostic utility of the Beck Anxiety Inventory and the State-trait Anxiety Inventory. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 11, 33–47. doi:10.1016/S0887-6185(96)00033-3
  • Kelly, M.E., Loughrey, D., Lawlor, B.A., Robertson, I.H., Walsh, C., & Brennan, S. (2014). The impact of cognitive training and mental stimulation on cognitive and everyday functioning of healthy older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ageing Research Reviews, 15, 28–43. doi:10.1016/j.arr.2014.02.004.
  • Keshavan, M.S., Vinogradov, S., Rumsey, J., Sherrill, J., & Wagner, A. (2014). Cognitive training in mental disorder: Update and future directions. American Journal of Psychiatry, 171, 510–522. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13081075
  • Kim, G.H., Jeon, S., Im, K., Kwon, H., Lee, B. H., Kim, G.Y., … Na, D.L. (2015). Structural brain changes after traditional and robot-assisted multi-domain cognitive training in community-dwelling healthy elderly. PLoS One, 10, e0123251. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0123251
  • Klingberg, T. (2010). Training plasticity of working memory. Trends in Cognitive Science, 14, 317–324. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.002
  • Knight, R.G., McMahon, J., Green, T.J., & Skeaf, C.M. (2004). Some normative and psychometric data for the geriatric depression scale and the cognitive failures questionnaire from a sample of healthy older persons. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 33, 163–170.
  • Kozora, E., & Cullum, C.M. (1995). Generative naming in normal aging: Total output and qualitative changes using phonemic and semantic constraints. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 9, 313–320. doi:10.1080/13854049508400495
  • Kueider, A., Bichay, K., & Rebok, G. (2014). Cognitive training for older adults: What is it and does it work? American Institutes for Research. Retrieved from http://www.air.org/sites/default/files/downloads/report/Cognitive%20Training%20for%20Older%20Adults_Nov%2014.pdf
  • Kuhn, S., Schmiedek, F., Noack, H., Wenger, E., Bodammer, N.C., Lindenberger, U., … Lovden, M. (2013). The dynamics of change in striatal activity following updating training. Human Brain Mapping, 34, 1530–1541. doi:10.1002/hbm.22007
  • Lampit, A., Hallock, H., Suo, C., Naismith, S.L., & Valenzuela, M. (2015). Cognitive training-induced short-term functional and long-term structural plastic change is related to gains in global cognition in healthy older adults: A pilot study. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 7(14), 1–13. doi:10.3389/fnagi.2015.00014
  • Laprise, R., & Vezina, J. (1998). Diagnostic performance of the geriatric depression scale and the beck depression inventory with nursing home residents. Canadian Journal on Aging, 17, 401–413. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2009.02.018
  • Levine, A.J., Miller, E.N., Becker, J.T., Selnes, O. A., & Cohen, B.A. (2004). Normative data for determining significance of test-retest differences on eight common neuropsychological instruments. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 18, 373–384. doi:10.1080/1385404049052420
  • Lezak, M.D., Howieson, D.B., Bigler, E.D., & Tranel, D. (2012). Neuropsychological assessment (5th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Lohman, M.C., Rebok, G.W., Spira, A.P., Parisi, J. M., Gross, A.L., & Kueider, A.M. (2013). Depressive symptoms and memory performance among older adults: Results from the ACTIVE memory training intervention. Journal of Aging and Health, 25, 209S–229S. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0898264312460573
  • Mangialasche, F., Kivipelto, M., Solomon, A., & Fratiglioni, L. (2012). Dementia prevention: Current epidemiological evidence and future perspective. Alzheimer's Research & Therapy, 4, 1–8. doi:10.1186/alzrt104
  • Martin, M., Clare, L., Altgassen, A.M., Cameron, M.H., & Zehnder, F. (2011). Cognition-based interventions for healthy older people and people with mild cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database System Review, 1, CD006220. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006220.pub2
  • McCulloch, C.E., & Searle, S.R. (2004). Generalized, linear, and mixed models. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
  • McDoughall, G.J., Becker, H., Pituch, K., Acee, T.W., Vaughan, P.W., & Delville, C.L. (2010). The SeniorWISE study: Improving everyday memory in older adults. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 24, 291–306. doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2009.11.001
  • McEachern, W., Kirk, A., Morgan, D.G., Crossley, M., & Henry, C. (2008). Reliability of the MMSE administered in person and by telehealth. The Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences, 35, 643–646. doi:10.1017/S0317167100009458
  • Miller, L.J., Myers, A., Prinzi, L., & Mittenberg, W. (2009). Changes in intellectual functioning associated with normal aging. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 24, 681–688. doi:10.1093/arclin/acp072
  • Mitrushina, M.M., Boone, K. B., Razani, J., & D'Elia, L.F. (2005). Handbook of normative data for neuropsychological assessment (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Mowszowski, L., Batchelor, J., & Naismith, S. (2010). Early intervention for cognitive decline: Can cognitive training be used as a selective prevention technique. International Psychogeriatrics, 22, 537–548. doi:10.1017/S1041610209991748
  • Mui, A.C., & Shibusawa, T. (2003). Japanese American elders and the Geriatric Depression Scale. The Clinical Gerontologist, 26, 91–104. doi:10.1300/J018v26n03_08
  • Naqvi, R., Liberman, D. Rosenberg, J. Alston, J., & Straus, S. (2013). Preventing cognitive decline in healthy older adults. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 185, 881–885. doi:10.1503/cmaj.121448.
  • Newkirk, L.A., Kim, J.M., Thompson, J.M., Tinklenberg, J.R., Yesavage, J.A., & Taylor, J.L. (2004). Validation of a 26-point telephone version of the mini-mental state examination. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 17, 81–87. doi:10.1177/0891988704264534.
  • Nouchi, R., Taki, Y., Takeuchi, H., Hashizume, H., Nozawa, T., Sekiguchi, A., … Kawashima R. (2012). Beneficial effects of reading aloud and solving simple arithmetic calculations (learning therapy) on a wide range of cognitive functions in the healthy elderly: Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials, 13(32), 1–10. doi:10.1186/1745-6215-13-32.
  • Osman, A., Kooper, B. A., Barrios, F.X., Osman, J. R., & Wade, T. (2002). The Beck Anxiety Inventory: Reexamination of factor structure and psychometric properties. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 53, 7–14. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(199701)53:13.0.CO;2-S
  • Owen, A.M., Hampshire, A., Grahn, J. A., Stentom, R., Dajani, S., Burns, A.S., … Ballard, C.G. 2010. Putting brain training to the test. Nature, 465, 775–778. doi:10.1038/nature09042.
  • Parisi, J.M., Willis, S.L., & Gross, A. (2014). Depressive symptoms and inductive reasoning performance: Findings from the ACTIVE reasoning training intervention. Psychology and Aging, 29, 843–851. doi:10.1037/a0037670
  • Rabin, L.A., Barr, W.B., & Burton, L.A. (2005). Assessment practices of clinical neuropsychologist in the United States and Canada. A survey of INS, NAN, and APA division 40 members. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20, 33–65. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2004.02.005
  • Rabin, L.A., Borgos, M. J., & Saykin, A. J. (2008). A survey of neuropsychologists' practices and perspectives regarding the assessment of judgement ability. Applied Neuropsychology, 15, 264–273. doi:10.1080/09084280802325090
  • Rahe, J., Petrelli, A., Kaesberg, S., Fink, G.R., Kessler, J., & Kalbe, E. (2015). Effects of cognitive training with additional physical activity compared to pure cognitive training in healthy older adults. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 10, 297–310. doi:10.2147/CIA.S74071
  • Rankin, M.W., Clemons, T.E., & McBee, W.L. (2005). Correlation analysis of the in-clinic and telephone batteries from the AREDS cognitive function ancillary study. AREDS Report No.15. Ophthalmic Epidemiology, 12, 271–277. doi:10.1080/09286580591003815.
  • Rapp, S.R., Legault, C., Espeland, M.A., Resnick, S.M., Hogan, P.E., Coker, L.H., … Shumaker, S (2012). Validation of a cognitive assessment battery administered by telephone. Journal of American Geriatric Society, 60, 1616–1623. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2012.04111.x
  • Raymond, C.K., Chan, D. S., Touloloulou, T., & Chen, E. (2008). Assessment of executive functions: Review of instruments and identification of critical issues. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 23, 201–216. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2007.08.010
  • Rebok, G., Ball, K., Guey, L.T., Jones, R.N., Kim, H., King, J.W.,… Willis, S.L. (2014). Ten-year effects of the advanced cognitive training for independent and vital elderly cognitive training trial on cognition and everyday functioning in older adults. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 61, 16–24. doi:10.1111/jgs.12607
  • Reichman, W.E., Fiocco, A.J., & Rose, N.S. (2010). Exercising the brain to avoid cognitive decline: Examining the evidence. Aging Health, 6, 565–584. doi:10.2217/ahe.10.54
  • Reijnders, J., van Heugten, C., & van Boxtel, M. (2013). Cognitive interventions in the healthy older adults and people with mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review. Ageing Research Reviews, 12, 263–75. doi:10.1016/j.arr.2012.07.003.
  • Reisberg, B., & Ferris, S.H. (1988). Brief Cognitive Rating Scale. Psychopharmacological Bulletin, 24. 629–636.
  • Reisberg, B., Ferris, S., & Borenstein, J. (1987). Assessment of presenting symptoms. In L. Poon (Ed.), Clinical memory assessment of older adults. (pp. 629–636) Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
  • Rickenbach, E.H., Almeida, D.M., Seeman, T.E., & Lachman, M.E. (2014). Daily stress magnifies the association between cognitive decline and everyday memory problems: An integration of longitudinal and diary methods. Psychology and Aging, 29, 852–862. doi:10.1037/a0038072
  • Roccafort, W.H., Burke, W.J., Bayer, B.L., & Wengel, S.P. (1992). Validation of a telephone version of the mini-mental state examination. Journal of the American Geriatric Society, 40, 697–702.
  • Rudebeck S.R., Bor, D., Ormond, A., O'Reilly, J. X., & Lee, A.C.H. (2012). A potential spatial working memory training task to improve both episodic memory and fluid intelligence. PLoS ONE, 7, e50431. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0050431
  • Ryan, J.J., Sattler, J.M., & Lopez, S.J. (2000). Age effects on Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-III subtests. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 15, 311–317. doi:10.1016/S0887-6177(99)00019-0
  • Sakka, P. (2015). Brain reserve and cognitive training in the elderly. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 821, 125–126. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-08939-3_16.
  • Salthouse, T. (2012). Consequences of age-related cognitive declines. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 201–226. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100328
  • Sattler, J., & Ryan, J. (2009). Assessment with the WAIS. La Mesa, CA: Jerome M. Sattler Publisher.
  • Schaie, K.W. (1996). Intellectual development in adulthood: The Seattle longitudinal study. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
  • Shao, Z., Janse, E., Visser, K., & Meyer, A.S (2014). What do verbal fluency tasks measure? Predictors of verbal fluency performance in older adults. Frontier in Psychology, 5(772), 1–10. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00772
  • Small, B.J., Dixon, R.A., Hultsch, D.F., & Hertzog, C. (1999). Longitudinal changes in quantitative and qualitative indicators of word and story recall in young-old and old-old adults. The Journals of Gerontology Series B, 54, 107–115. doi:10.1093/geronb/54B.2.P107
  • Smith, G.E., Housen, P., Yaffe, K., Fuff, R., Kenninson, R.F., Mahncke, H.W., … Zelinski, E.M. (2009). A cognitive training program based on principles of brain plasticity: Results from the Improvement in Memory with Plasticity-based Adaptive Cognitive Training (IMPACT) Study. Journal of American Geriatric Society, 57, 594–603. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2008.02167.x.
  • Stephenson, C.L., & Halpern, D.F. (2013). Improved matrix reasoning is limited to training on tasks with a visuospatial component. Intelligence, 41, 341–357. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.05.006
  • Strauss, O., Sherman, E.M.S., & Spreen. E. (2006). A compendium of neuropsychological test: Administration, norms and commentary (3rd Ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Tate, R. L. (2010). A compendium of tests, scales and questionnaires: The practitioner's guide to measuring outcomes after acquired brain impairment. Hove: Psychology Press.
  • The Psychological Corporation (2002). WAIS-III/WMS-III technical manual. San Antonio, TX: Pearson.
  • The Psychological Corporation (2008). WAIS-IV administration and scoring manual. San Antonio, TX: Pearson.
  • Tombaugh, T.N., Kozak, J., & Rees, L. (1999). Normative data stratified by age and education for two measures of verbal fluency: FAS and Animal Naming. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 14, 167–177. doi:10.1016/S0887-6177(97)00095-4
  • Tombaugh, T.N., & McIntyre, N.J. (1992). The MMSE: A comprehensive Review. Journal of the American Geriatric Society, 40, 922–935. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.1992.tb01992.x
  • Valkanova, V., Rodriguez, R.E., & Ebmeier, K.P. (2014). Mind over matter-what do we know about neuroplasticity in adults? International Psychogeriatrics, 26, 891–909. doi:10.1017/S1041610213002482
  • Vance, D.E., Roberson, A.J., McGuinness, T.M., & Fazeli, P.L. (2010). How neuroplasticity and cognitive reserve protect cognitive functioning. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 48, 23–30. doi:10.3928/02793695-20100302-01
  • Verbeke, G., & Molenberghs, G. (2000). Linear mixed models for longitudinal data. New York, NY: Springer.
  • Verhaeghen, P., Marcoen, A., & Goossens, L. (1992). Improving memory performance in the aged through mnemonic training: A meta-analytic study. Psychology and Aging, 7, 242–251. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.7.2.242
  • Wechsler, D. (1987). Wechsler memory scale (3rd ed.). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
  • Zelinski, E., & Burnright, K. (1997). Sixteen-year longitudinal and time lag changes in memory and cognition in older adults. Psychology and Aging, 12, 503–513. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.12.3.503

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.