Cognitive effects of video games in older adults and their moderators: a systematic review with meta-analysis and meta-regression

References

• Ackerman, P. L., Kanfer, R., & Calderwood, C. (2010). Use it or lose it? Wii brain exercise practice and reading for domain knowledge. Psychology and Aging, 25(4), 753–766.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anguera, J. A., Boccanfuso, J., Rintoul, J. L., Al-Hashimi, O., Faraji, F., Janowich, J., … Gazzaley, A. (2013). Video game training enhances cognitive control in older adults. Nature, 501(7465), 97–101.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker, W. L., White, C. M., Cappelleri, J. C., Kluger, J., & Coleman, C. I. (2009). Understanding heterogeneity in meta-analysis: The role of meta-regression. International Journal of Clinical Practice, 63(10), 1426–1434.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ballesteros, S., Prieto, A., Mayas, J., Toril, P., Pita, C., de León, L. P., …., Waterworth, J. (2014). Brain training with non-action video games enhances aspects of cognition in older adults: A randomized controlled trial. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 6, 277.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartels, C., Wegrzyn, M., Wiedl, A., Ackermann, V., & Ehrenreich, H. (2010). Practice effects in healthy adults: A longitudinal study on frequent repetitive cognitive testing. BMC Neuroscience, 11(1), 118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basak, C., Boot, W. R., Voss, M. W., & Kramer, A. F. (2008). Can training in a real-time strategy video game attenuate cognitive decline in older adults?. Psychology and Aging, 23(4), 765–777.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belchior, P., Marsiske, M., Sisco, S. M., Yam, A., Bavelier, D., Ball, K., & Mann, W. C. (2013). Video game training to improve selective visual attention in older adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(4), 1318–1324.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belchior, P., Yam, A., Thomas, K. R., Bavelier, D., Ball, K. K., Mann, W. C., & Marsiske, M. (2018). Computer and Videogame Interventions for Older Adults' Cognitive and Everyday Functioning. Games for Health Journal, 8(2), 1–15. doi: 10.1089/g4h.2017.0092
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boot, W. R., Champion, M., Blakely, D. P., Wright, T., Souders, D. J., & Charness, N. (2013). Video games as a means to reduce age-related cognitive decline: Attitudes, compliance, and effectiveness. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borenstein, M. (2009). Effect sizes based on means Introduction to meta-analysis. Chichester, U.K.: John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. (2005). Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (Version 2) [Computer software]. Englewood, NJ: Biostat.
   Google Scholar
• Bozoki, A., Radovanovic, M., Winn, B., Heeter, C., & Anthony, J. C. (2013). Effects of a computer-based cognitive exercise program on age-related cognitive decline. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 57(1), 1–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callan, D. E., & Schweighofer, N. (2010). Neural correlates of the spacing effect in explicit verbal semantic encoding support the deficient‐processing theory. Human Brain Mapping, 31(4), 645–659.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006). Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(3), 354–380.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chuang, L.-Y., Hung, H.-Y., Huang, C.-J., Chang, Y.-K., & Hung, T.-M. (2015). A 3-month intervention of dance revolution improves interference control in elderly females: A preliminary investigation. Experimental Brain Research, 233(4), 1181–1188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark, J. E., Lanphear, A. K., & Riddick, C. C. (1987). The effects of videogame playing on the response selection processing of elderly adults. Journals of Gerontology, 42(1), 82–85.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Colbert, L. H., Visser, M., Simonsick, E. M., Tracy, R. P., Newman, A. B., Kritchevsky, S. B., … Harris, T. B. (2004). Physical activity, exercise, and inflammatory markers in older adults: Findings from the health, aging and body composition study. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 52(7), 1098–1104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Der, G., & Deary, I. J. (2006). Age and sex differences in reaction time in adulthood: Results from the United Kingdom Health and Lifestyle Survey. Psychology and Aging, 21(1), 62–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diamond, B. J., DeLuca, J., Rosenthal, D., Vlad, R., Davis, K., Lucas, G., … Richards, J. A. (2000). Information processing in older versus younger adults: Accuracy versus speed. International Journal of Rehabilitation and Health, 5(1), 55–64.
   Google Scholar
• Downs, S. H., & Black, N. (1998). The feasibility of creating a checklist for the assessment of the methodological quality both of randomised and non-randomised studies of health care interventions. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 52(6), 377–384.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan, J., Johnson, R., Swales, M., & Freer, C. (1997). Frontal lobe deficits after head injury: Unity and diversity of function. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 14(5), 713–741. [sCrossRef]
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dustman, R. E., Emmerson, R. Y., Steinhaus, L. A., Shearer, D. E., & Dustman, T. J. (1992). The effects of videogame playing on neuropsychological performance of elderly individuals. Journal of Gerontology, 47(3), P168–P171.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Duval, S., & Tweedie, R. (2000). Trim and fill: A simple funnel-plot–based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics, 56(2), 455–463. doi:
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eggenberger, P., Schumacher, V., Angst, M., Theill, N., & de Bruin, E. D. (2015). Does multicomponent physical exercise with simultaneous cognitive training boost cognitive performance in older adults? A 6-month randomized controlled trial with a 1-year follow-up. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 10, 1335–1349.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eggenberger, P., Wolf, M., Schumann, M., & de Bruin, E. D. (2016). Exergame and balance training modulate prefrontal brain activity during walking and enhance executive function in older adults. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 8, 66.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Egger, M., Smith, G. D., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997). Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ, 315(7109), 629–634.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Falleti, M. G., Maruff, P., Collie, A., & Darby, D. G. (2006). Practice effects associated with the repeated assessment of cognitive function using the CogState battery at 10-minute, one week and one month test-retest intervals. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 28(7), 1095–1112.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisk, J. E., & Sharp, C. A. (2004). Age-related impairment in executive functioning: Updating, inhibition, shifting, and access. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 26(7), 874–890.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fjell, A. M., McEvoy, L., Holland, D., Dale, A. M., & Walhovd, K. B. (2014). What is normal in normal aging? Effects of aging, amyloid and Alzheimer's disease on the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus. Progress in Neurobiology, 117, 20–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foroughi, C. K., Monfort, S. S., Paczynski, M., McKnight, P. E., & Greenwood, P. M. (2016). Placebo effects in cognitive training. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(27), 7470–7474.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredrickson, J., Maruff, P., Woodward, M., Moore, L., Fredrickson, A., Sach, J., & Darby, D. (2010). Evaluation of the usability of a brief computerized cognitive screening test in older people for epidemiological studies. Neuroepidemiology, 34(2), 65–75.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein, J. H., Cajko, L., Oosterbroek, M., Michielsen, M., van Houten, O., & Salverda, F. (1997). Video games and the elderly. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 25(4), 345–352.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grady, C. (2012). The cognitive neuroscience of ageing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(7), 491–505.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene, R. L. (1989). Spacing Effects in Memory: Evidence for a Two-Process Account. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15(3), 371–377. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.15.3.371
   Google Scholar
• Green, C. S., & Bavelier, D. (2006). Effect of action video games on the spatial distribution of visuospatial attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 32(6), 1465–1478.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harada, C. N. M. D., Natelson Love, M. C. M. D., & Triebel, K. L. P. (2013). Normal cognitive aging. Clinics in Geriatric Medicine, 29(4), 737–752.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedden, T., & Yoon, C. (2006). Individual differences in executive processing predict susceptibility to interference in verbal working memory. Neuropsychology, 20(5), 511–528.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higgins, J. P., Thompson, S. G., Deeks, J. J., & Altman, D. G. (2003). Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. BMJ, 327(7414), 557–560. doi: 10.1136/bmj.327.7414.557
   Google Scholar
• Hozo, S. P., Djulbegovic, B., & Hozo, I. (2005). Estimating the mean and variance from the median, range, and the size of a sample. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 5(1), 13.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hull, R., Martin, R. C., Beier, M. E., Lane, D., & Hamilton, A. C. (2008). Executive function in older adults: A structural equation modeling approach. Neuropsychology, 22(4), 508–522.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kayama, H., Nishiguchi, S., Yamada, M., Aoyama, T., Okamoto, K., & Kuroda, T. (2013). Effect of a Kinect-based exercise game on improving executive cognitive performance in community-dwelling elderly. Proceedings of the 2013, 7th International Conference on Pervasive Computing Technologies for Healthcare and Workshops, PervasiveHealth 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Kim, K.-W., Choi, Y., You, H., Na, D. L., Yoh, M.-S., Park, J.-K., … Ko, M.-H. (2015). Effects of a serious game training on cognitive functions in older adults. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 63(3), 603–605.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimberg, D. Y., & Farah, M. J. (1993). A unified account of cognitive impairments following frontal lobe damage: the role of working memory in complex, organized behavior. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 122(4), 411–428.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirk-Sanchez, N. J., & McGough, E. L. (2014). Physical exercise and cognitive performance in the elderly: Current perspectives. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 9, 51–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laframboise, M. A., & Degraauw, C. (2011). The effects of aerobic physical activity on adiposity in school-aged children and youth: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. The Journal of the Canadian Chiropractic Association, 55(4), 256–268.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lampit, A., Hallock, H., & Valenzuela, M. (2014). Computerized cognitive training in cognitively healthy older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of effect modifiers. PLoS Medicine, 11(11), e1001756.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawo, V., & Koch, I. (2015). Attention and action: The role of response mappings in auditory attention switching. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 27(2), 194–206.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Longman, R. S., Saklofske, D. H., & Fung, T. S. (2007). WAIS-III percentile scores by education and sex for U.S. and Canadian populations. Assessment, 14(4), 426–432.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maillot, P., Perrot, A., & Hartley, A. (2012). Effects of interactive physical-activity video-game training on physical and cognitive function in older adults. Psychology and Aging, 27(3), 589–600.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marin-Martinez, F., & Sanchez-Meca, J. (1999). Averaging dependent effect sizes in meta-analysis: a cautionary note about procedures. Spanish Journal of Psychology, 2(1), 32–38.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MATLAB. (Version 2015b). [Computer software]. Natick, MA: MathWorks, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• McClelland, G. H., Lynch, J. G., Irwin, J. R., Spiller, S. A., & Fitzsimons, G. J. (2015). Median splits, type II errors, and false–positive consumer psychology: Don't fight the power. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 25(4), 679–689.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDougall, S., & House, B. (2012). Brain training in older adults: Evidence of transfer to memory span performance and pseudo-Matthew effects. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 19(1–2), 195–221.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “Frontal Lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris, S. B. (2008). Estimating effect sizes from pretest-posttest-control group designs. Organizational Research Methods, 11(2), 364–386.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nouchi, R., Taki, Y., Takeuchi, H., Hashizume, H., Akitsuki, Y., Shigemune, Y., … Kawashima, R. (2012). Brain training game improves executive functions and processing speed in the elderly: A randomized controlled trial. PLoS ONE, 7(1), e29676.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Shea, A., Cohen, R. A., Porges, E. C., Nissim, N. R., & Woods, A. J. (2016). Cognitive aging and the hippocampus in older adults. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 8, 298.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ordnung, M., Hoff, M., Kaminski, E., Villringer, A., & Ragert, P. (2017). No overt effects of a 6-week exergame training on sensorimotor and cognitive function in older adults. A preliminary investigation. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 11, 160–160.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owen, A. M., Hampshire, A., Grahn, J. A., Stenton, R., Dajani, S., Burns, A. S., … Ballard, C. G. (2010). Putting brain training to the test. Nature, 465(7299), 775.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, D. C., Lautenschlager, G., Hedden, T., Davidson, N. S., Smith, A. D., & Smith, P. K. (2002). Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span. Psychology and Aging, 17(2), 299–320.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perrot, A., Maillot, P., & Hartley, A. (2018). Cognitive training game versus action videogame: effects on cognitive functions in older adults. Games for Health Journal, 8(1), 1–6. doi: 10.1089/g4h.2018.0010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Portney, L. G., & Watkins, M. P. (1993). Foundations of clinical research: Applications to practice. Norwalk, CT: Appleton & Lange.
   Google Scholar
• Powers, K. L., Brooks, P. J., Aldrich, N. J., Palladino, M. A., & Alfieri, L. (2013). Effects of video-game play on information processing: A meta-analytic investigation. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 20(6), 1055–1079.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ratcliff, R., Thapar, A., & McKoon, G. (2006). Aging and individual differences in rapid two-choice decisions. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 13(4), 626–635.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., & Cappell, K. A. (2008). Neurocognitive aging and the compensation hypothesis. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17(3), 177–182.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roivainen, E. (2011). Gender differences in processing speed: A review of recent research. Learning and Individual Differences, 21(2), 145–149.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rose, N. S., Rendell, P. G., Hering, A., Kliegel, M., Bidelman, G. M., & Craik, F. I. M. (2015). Cognitive and neural plasticity in older adults’ prospective memory following training with the virtual week computer game. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9, 592.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salthouse, T. A. (1996). The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychological Review, 103(3), 103–428.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salthouse, T. A. (2003). Memory aging from 18 to 80. Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders, 17(3), 162–167.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schattin, A., Arner, R., Gennaro, F., D., & Bruin, E. D. (2016). Adaptations of prefrontal brain activity, executive functions, and gait in healthy elderly following exergame and balance training: A randomized-controlled study. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 8, 278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoene, D., Valenzuela, T., Lord, S. R., & de Bruin, E. D. (2014). The effect of interactive cognitive-motor training in reducing fall risk in older people: A systematic review. BMC Geriatrics, 14(1), 107.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoene, D., Valenzuela, T., Toson, B., Delbaere, K., Severino, C., Garcia, J., … Lord, S. R. (2015). Interactive cognitive-motor step training improves cognitive risk factors of falling in older adults – A randomized controlled trial. PLoS One, 10(12), e0145161.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simons, D. J., Boot, W. R., Charness, N., Gathercole, S. E., Chabris, C. F., Hambrick, D. Z., & Stine-Morrow, E. A. L. (2016). Do "Brain-Training" Programs Work? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 17(3), 103–186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spreen, O., & Strauss, E., (1998). A compendium of neuropsychological tests: Administration norms and commentary (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Stafford, T., & Dewar, M. (2014). Tracing the trajectory of skill learning with a very large sample of online game players. Psychological Science, 25(2), 511–518.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanmore, E., Stubbs, B., Vancampfort, D., de Bruin, E. D., & Firth, J. (2017). The effect of active video games on cognitive functioning in clinical and non-clinical populations: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 78, 34–43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Starns, J. J., & Ratcliff, R. (2010). The effects of aging on the speed-accuracy compromise: Boundary optimality in the diffusion model. Psychology and Aging, 25(2), 377–390.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stata (Version 15.1) [Computer Software]. (2017). College Station, TX: StataCorp.
   Google Scholar
• Stern, Y., Blumen, H. M., Rich, L. W., Richards, A., Herzberg, G., & Gopher, D. (2011). Space Fortress game training and executive control in older adults: A pilot intervention. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 18(6), 653–677.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stuss, D. T., Alexander, M. P., Floden, D., Binns, M. A., Levine, B., McIntosh, A. R., …, Hevenor, S. J., (2002). Fractionation and localization of distinct frontal lobe processes: Evidence from focal lesions in humans principles of frontal lobe functions. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sween, J., Wallington, S. F., Sheppard, V., Taylor, T., Llanos, A. A., & Adams-Campbell, L. L. (2014). The role of exergaming in improving physical activity: A review. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 11(4), 864–870.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sylvain-Roy, S., Lungu, O., & Belleville, S. (2015). Normal aging of the attentional control functions that underlie working memory. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 70(5), 698–708.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taaffe, D. R., Irie, F., Masaki, K. H., Abbott, R. D., Petrovitch, H., Ross, G. W., & White, L. R. (2008). Physical activity, physical function, and incident dementia in elderly men: The Honolulu-Asia Aging Study. Journals of Gerontology – Series A Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 63(5), 529–535.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toril, P., Reales, J. M., & Ballesteros, S. (2014). Video game training enhances cognition of older adults: A meta-analytic study. Psychology and Aging, 29(3), 706–716.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toril, P., Reales, J. M., Mayas, J., & Ballesteros, S. (2016). Video game training enhances visuospatial working memory and episodic memory in older adults. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 10, 206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Muijden, J., Band, G. P. H., & Hommel, B. (2012). Online games training aging brains: Limited transfer to cognitive control functions. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 221.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, P., Liu, H.-H., Zhu, X.-T., Meng, T., Li, H.-J., & Zuo, X.-N. (2016). Action video game training for healthy adults: A meta-analytic study. Frontiers in Psychology, 7(1-13), 907.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, Z., Zhou, R., & Shah, P. (2014). Spaced cognitive training promotes training transfer. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8(217), 217.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West, R. L. (1996). An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging. Psychology Bulletin, 120(2), 272–292.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weuve, J., Kang, J. H., Manson, J. E., Breteler, M. M. B., Ware, J. H., & Grodstein, F. (2004). Physical activity, including walking, and cognitive function in older women. JAMA, 292(12), 1454–1461.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xue, G., Mei, L., Chen, C., Lu, Z. L., Poldrack, R., & Dong, Q. (2011). Spaced learning enhances subsequent recognition memory by reducing neural repetition suppression. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(7), 1624–1633.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmerman, P., & Fimm, B., (2002). A test battery for attentional performance. In M. Leclercq & P. Zimmerman (Eds.), A test battery for attentional performance (1st ed.). London: Psychology Presss.
   Google Scholar