696
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Stress, Trauma and Life Experience

Past trauma, resettlement stress, and mental health of older Bhutanese with a refugee life experience

, , , , , & show all
Pages 2149-2158 | Received 17 Mar 2021, Accepted 30 Jul 2021, Published online: 16 Aug 2021

References

  • Adhikari, S. B., Daniulaityte, R., & Bhatta, D. N. (2021). Demographic and psychosocial factors associated with suicidal ideation among resettled Bhutanese refugees. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 23(3), 511–518. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-021-01149-z
  • Ajrouch, K. J., Barr, R., Daiute, C., Huizink, A. C., & Jose, P. E. (2020). A lifespan developmental science perspective on trauma experiences in refugee situations. Advances in Life Course Research, 45, 100342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alcr.2020.100342
  • Ao, T., Shetty, S., Sivilli, T., Blanton, C., Ellis, H., Geltman, P. L., Cochran, J., Taylor, E., Lankau, E. W., & Lopes Cardozo, B. (2016). Suicidal ideation and mental health of Bhutanese refugees in the United States. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 18(4), 828–835. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-015-0325-7
  • Atwell, R., Correa-Velez, I., & Gifford, S. (2007). Ageing out of place: Health and well-being needs and access to home and aged care services for recently arrived older refugees in Melbourne, Australia. International Journal of Migration, Health and Social Care, 3(1), 4–14. https://doi.org/10.1108/17479894200700002
  • Banki, S. (2008). Resettlement of the Bhutanese from Nepal: The durable solution discourse. In Adelman, H (ed.) Protracted Displacement in Asia: No Place to Call Home. New York: Routledge. 29–58.
  • Bazzi, L., & Chemali, Z. (2016). A conceptual framework of displaced elderly Syrian refugees in Lebanon: Challenges and opportunities. Global Journal of Health Science, 8(11), 54–61. https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v8n11p54
  • Ben-Schlomo, Y., & Kuh, D. (2002). A life course approach to chronic disease epidemiology: Conceptual models, empirical challenges and interdisciplinary perspectives. International Journal of Epidemiology, 31, 285–293. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/31.2.285
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2013). Suicide and suicidal ideation among Bhutanese refugees--United States, 2009-2012. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 62(26), 533.
  • Chase, L., & Sapkota, R. P. (2017). "In our community, a friend is a psychologist": An ethnographic study of informal care in two Bhutanese refugee communities”: . Transcultural Psychiatry, 54(3), 400–422. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461517703023
  • Ciobanu, R. O., Fokkema, T., & Nedelcu, M. (2017). Ageing as a migrant: Vulnerabilities, agency and policy implications. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 43(2), 164–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2016.1238903
  • Cummings, S., Sull, L., Davis, C., & Worley, N. (2011). Correlates of depression among older Kurdish refugees. Social Work, 56(2), 159–168. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/56.2.159
  • Embassy of the United States (2016). U.S. Ambassador bids farewell to 90,000th refugee to resettle to the United States. Available on-line at: https://nepal.usembassy.gov/pr-2016-09-21.html
  • Fazel, M., Reed, R. V., Panter-Brick, C., & Stein, A. (2012). Mental health of displaced and refugee children resettled in high-income countries: Risk and protective factors. The Lancet, 379(9812), 266–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60051-2
  • Fazel, M., Wheeler, J., & Danesh, J. (2005). Prevalence of serious mental disorder in 7000 refugees resettled in western countries: A systematic review. The Lancet, 365(9467), 1309–1314. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)61027-6
  • Frounfelker, R. L., Mishra, T., Dhesi, S., Gautaum, B., Adhikari, N. & Betancourt, T. S. (2020). “We are all under the same roof”: Coping and meaning-making among older Bhutanese with a refugee life experience. Social Science and Medicine, 264, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113311
  • Gautam, R., Rydberg, J., Ho, I., Siwakoti, B., Chadbourne, W., & Mawn, B. E. (2021). Psychological distress among Bhutanese refugees living in the northeast region of the United States. Journal of Refugee Studies, https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/feab025
  • Gilman, S. E., & Marden, J. R. (2013). Role of the social environmental over the life course in the aetiology of psychiatric disorders. In Koenen, K. C., Rudenstine, S., Susser, E., & Galea, S. (Eds.). A life course approach to mental disorders (vol. 1, pp. 215–226). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Giri, B. (2005). Mourning the 15th anniversary of crisis: The plight of Bhutanese refugee women and children. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 40(5), 345–369. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909605057742
  • Gitlin, L. N., Harris, L. F., McCoy, M. C., Chernett, N. L., Pizzi, L. T., Jutkowitz, E., Hess, E., & Hauck, W. W. (2013). A home-based intervention to reduce depressive symptoms and improve quality of life in older African Americans: A randomized trial. Annals of Internal Medicine, 159(4), 243–252. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-159-4-20130820000005
  • Hayes, A. (2009). Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation analysis in the new millennium. Communication Monographs, 76(4), 408–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637750903310360
  • Heinonen, S. (2019). Namaste Adult Day Care provides healthcare for aging southeast Asian population. The Reminder. Available on-line at: https://www.thereminder.com/localnews/west-springfield/namaste-adult-day-care-provides-healthcare-for-agi/
  • Hollifield, M., Eckert, V., Warner, T. D., Jenkins, J., Krakow, B., Ruiz, J., & Westermeyer, J. (2005). Development of an inventory for measuring war-related events in refugees. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 46(1), 67–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2004.07.003
  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
  • Hutt, M. (1996). Ethnic nationalism, refugees and Bhutan. Journal of Refugee Studies, 9(4), 397–420. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/9.4.397
  • Hutt, M. (2005). The Bhutanese refugees : Between verification, repatriation and royal realpolitik. Peace and Democracy in South Asia, 1(1), 44–56.
  • Im, H., & Neff, J. (2021). Spiral loss of culture: Cultural trauma and bereavement of Bhutanese refugee elders. Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, 19(2), 99–113.https://doi.org/10.1080/15562948.2020.1736362
  • International Organization for Migration (2014). Bhutanese refugee number 90,000 resettled from Nepal to Canada. Available on-line at: https://www.iom.int/news/bhutanese-http://refugee-number-90000-resettled-nepal-canada
  • Karl, U., Ramos, A. C., & Kuh, B. (2017). Older migrants in Luxembourg – care preferences for old age between family and professional services. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 32(2), 270–286. DOI:10.1080/1369183X.2016.1238909.
  • King, R., Lulle, A., Sampaio, D., & Vullnetari, J. (2017). Unpacking the ageing-migration nexus and challenging the vulnerability trope. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 43(2), 182–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2016.1238904
  • Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
  • Kohrt, B. A., Luitel, N. P., Acharya, P., & Jordans, M. J. (2016). Detection of depression in low resource settings: Validation of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) and cultural concepts of distress in Nepal. BMC Psychiatry, 16(1), 58. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-0768-y
  • Kohrt, B. A., Maharjan, S. M., Timsina, D., & Griffith, J. L. (2012). Applying Nepali ethnopsychology to psychotherapy for the treatment of mental illness and prevention of suicide among Bhutanese refugees. Annals of Anthropological Practice, 36(1), 88–112. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2153-9588.2012.010194.x
  • Kuh, D., Ben-Shlomo, Y., Lynch, J., Hallqvist, J., & Power, C. (2003). Life course epidemiology. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 57(10), 778–783. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.57.10.778
  • Layne, C. M., Stuvland, R., Saltzman, W., Djapo, N., & Pynoos, R. S. (1999). Post War Adversities Index. Unpublished manuscript.
  • Lewis, J. L. (2020). Social capital matters for older Bhutanese refugees’ integration. J Immigr Minor Health, 22(6), 1295–1303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-020-01057-8
  • Lin, S., Kobayashi, K., Tong, H., Davison, K. M., Arora, S. R. A., & Fuller-Thomson, E. (2020). Close relations matter: The association between depression and refugee status in the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging (CLSA)). Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 22(5), 946–956. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-020-00980-0
  • Lood, Q., Häggblom-Kronlöf, G., & Dahlin-Ivanoff, S. (2015). Health promotion programme design and efficacy in relation to ageing persons with culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis. BMC Health Services Research, 15, 560. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-015-1222-4
  • Löwe, B., Decker, O., Müller, S., Brähler, E., Schellberg, D., Herzog, W., & Herzberg, P. Y. (2008). Validation and standardization of the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Screener (GAD-7) in the general population. Medical Care, 46(3), 266–274. Available on-line at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40221654https://doi.org/10.1097/MLR.0b013e318160d093
  • Lumley, M., Katsikitis, M., & Statham, D. (2018). Depression, anxiety, and acculturative stress among resettled Bhutanese refugees in Australia. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 49(8), 1269–1282. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022118786458
  • Marfin, A. A., Moore, J., Collins, C., Biellik, R., Kattel, U., Toole, M. J., & Moore, P. S. (1994). Infectious disease surveillance during emergency relief to Bhutanese refugees in Nepal. Journal of the American Medical Association, 272(5), 377–381. http://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1994.03520050057030
  • Marshall, G. N., Schell, T. L., Elliott, M. N., Berthold, S. M., & Chun, C. A. (2005). Mental health of Cambodian refugees 2 decades after resettlement in the United States. JAMA, 294(5), 571–579. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.294.5.571
  • Miller, K. E., & Rasmussen, A. (2017). The mental health of civilians displaced by armed conflict: An ecological model of refugee distress. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 26(2), 129–138. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796016000172
  • Mills, E., Singh, S., Roach, B., & Chong, S. (2008). Prevalence of mental disorders and torture among Bhutanese refugees in Nepal: A systemic review and its policy implications. Medicine, Conflict, and Survival, 24(1), 5–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/13623690701775171
  • Mölsä, M., Kuittinen, S., Tiilikainen, M., Honkasalo, M.-L., & Punamäki, R.-L. (2017). Mental health among older refugees: The role of trauma, discrimination, and religiousness. Aging & Mental Health, 21(8), 829–837. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2016.1165183
  • Mölsä, M., Punamäki, R. L., Saarni, S. I., Tiilikainen, M., Kuittinen, S., & Honkasalo, M. L. (2014). Mental and somatic health and pre- and post-migration factors among older Somali refugees in Finland . Transcultural Psychiatry, 51(4), 499–525. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461514526630
  • Naeem, F., Latif, M., Mukhtar, F., Kim, Y. R., Li, W., Butt, M. G., Kumar, N., & Ng, R. (2021). Transcultural adaptation of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) in Asia. Asia-Pacific Psychiatry : Official Journal of the Pacific Rim College of Psychiatrists, 13(1), e12442. https://doi.org/10.1111/appy.12442
  • Nies, M. A., Febles, C., Fanning, K., & Tavernier, S. S. (2018). A conceptual model for home based primary care of older refugees. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 20(2), 485–491. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-017-0610-8
  • O’Donnell, A. W., Stuart, J., & O’Donnell, K. J. (2020). The long-term financial and psychological resettlement outcomes of pre-migration trauma and post-settlement difficulties in resettled refugees . Social Science & Medicine (1982), 262, 113246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113246
  • Office of Refugee Resettlement. (2021a). Services to older refugees. Accessed on-line at: https://www.acf.hhs.gov/orr/programs/older-refugees
  • Office of Refugee Resettlement. (2021b). Ethnic community self-help. Accessed on-line at: https://www.acf.hhs.gov/orr/programs/refugees/ethnic-community-self-help
  • Oglak, S., & Hussein, S. (2016). Active Ageing: Social and Cultural Integration of Older Turkish Alevi Refugees in London. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 36(1), 74–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/13602004.2016.1147152
  • Poudel-Tandukar, K., Jacelon, C. S., Bertone-Johnson, E. R., Gautam, B., Palmer, P. H., & Hollon, S. D. (2020). Coping strategies and stress among resettled Bhutanese adults in Massachusetts. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 90(4), 502–509. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000453
  • Quijano, L. M., Stanley, M. A., Petersen, N. J., Casado, B. L., Steinberg, E. H., Cully, J. A., & Wilson, N. L. (2007). Healthy IDEAS: A depression intervention delivered by community-based case managers serving older adults. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 26(2), 139–156. https://doi.org/10.1177/0733464807299354
  • Ramaiya, M. K., Fiorillo, D., Regmi, U., Robins, C. J., & Kohrt, B. A. (2017). A cultural adaptation of dialectical behavior therapy in Nepal. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 24(4), 428–444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpra.2016.12.005
  • Reiffers, R., Dahal, R. P., Koirala, S., Gerritzen, R., Upadhaya, N., Luitel, N. P., & Jordans, M. J. (2013). Psychosocial support for Bhutanese refugees in Nepal. Intervention, 11(2), 169–179. https://doi.org/10.1097/WTF.0b013e32835e368c
  • Riley, A., Varner, A., Ventevogel, P., Taimur Hasan, M. M., & Welton-Mitchell, C. (2017). Daily stressors, trauma exposure, and mental health among stateless Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. Transcultural Psychiatry, 54(3), 304–331. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461517705571
  • Rizal, D. (2004). The unknown refugee crisis: Expulsion of the ethnic Lhotsampa from Bhutan. Asian Ethnicity, 5(2), 151–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/1463136042000221861
  • Rousseau, C., & Frounfelker, R. L. (2019). Mental health needs and services for migrants: An overview for primary care providers. Journal of Travel Medicine, 26(2), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/tay150
  • Sand, G., & Gruber, S. (2018). Differences in subjective well-being between older migrants and natives in Europe. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 20(1), 83–90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-016-0537-5
  • Sherbourne, C. D., & Stewart, A. L. (1991). The MOS social support survey. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 32(6), 705–714. https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(91)90150-B
  • Spallek, J., Zeeb, H., & Razum, O. (2011). What do we have to know from migrants’ past exposures to understand their health status? a life course approach. Emerging Themes in Epidemiology, 8(1), 6–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1742-7622-8-6
  • Spitzer, R. L., Kroenke, K., Williams, J. B., & Löwe, B. (2006). A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: The GAD-7. Archives of Internal Medicine, 166(10), 1092–1097. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092
  • Stanley, M. A., Wilson, N. L., Shrestha, S., Amspoker, A. B., Wagener, P., Bavineau, J., Turner, M., Fletcher, T. L., Freshour, J., Kraus-Schuman, C., & Kunik, M. E. (2018). Community-based outreach and treatment for underserved older adults with clinically significant worry: A randomized controlled trial. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry : official Journal of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry, 26(11), 1147–1162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2018.07.011
  • StataCorp. (2019). Stata Statistical Software: Release 16 [computer program]. College Station, TX: StataCorp LLC.
  • Steel, Z., Silove, D., Bird, K., McGorry, P., & Mohan, P. (1999). Pathways from war trauma to posttraumatic stress symptoms among Tamil asylum seekers, refugees, and immigrants. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 12(3), 421–435. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024710902543
  • Strong, J., Varady, C., Chahda, N., Doocy, S., & Burnham, G. (2015). Health status and health needs of older refugees from Syria in Lebanon. Conflict and Health, 9, 12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13031-014-0029-y
  • Thapa, S. B., Van Ommeren, M., Sharma, B., de Jong, J. T. V. M., & Hauff, E. (2003). Psychiatric disability among tortured Bhutanese refugees in Nepal. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(11), 2032–2037. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.11.2032
  • Torr, B. M., & Walsh, E. T. (2018). Does the refugee experience overshadow the effect of SES? An examination of self-reported health among older Vietnamese refugees. Race and Social Problems, 10(3), 259–271. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-018-9240-6
  • Uba, L., & Chung, R. C. (1991). The relationship between trauma and financial and physical well-being among Cambodians in the United States. The Journal of General Psychology, 118(3), 215–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309/1991.9917782
  • United Nations High Comissioner for Refugees. (2021). Global trends: Forced displacement in 2020. UNHCR: Denmark. Available on-line at: https://www.unhcr.org/60b638e37/unhcr-global-trends-2020
  • United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2010). Convention and protocol relating to the status of refugees. Geneva: UNHCR. Available online at: https://www.unhcr.org/protection/basic/3b66c2aa10/convention-protocol-relating-status-refugees.html
  • United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2016). UNHCR age, gender and diversity: accountability report 2015. Available on-line at: http://www.unhcr.org/en-us/older-people.html
  • United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Evaluation and Policy Analysis Unit. (2005). Refugee health in Nepal: Joint UNHCR-WHO evaluation of health and health programmes in Bhutanese refugee camps in Nepal. Geneva, Switzerland. Available on- line at: https://www.alnap.org/help-library/refugee-health-in-nepal-joint-unhcr-who-evaluation-of-health-and-health-programmes-in
  • Van Ommeren, M., de Jong, J. T. V. M., Sharma, B., Komproe, I., Thapa, S. B., & Cardena, E. (2001). Psychiatric disorders among tortured Bhutanese refugees in Nepal. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58(5), 475–482. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.58.5.475
  • Van Ommeren, M., Sharma, B., Thapa, S., Makaju, R., Prasain, D., Bhattarai, R., & de Jong, J. (1999). Preparing instruments for transcultural research: Use of the translation monitoring form with Nepali-speaking Bhutanese refugees. Transcultural Psychiatry, 36(3), 285–301. https://doi.org/10.1177/136346159903600304
  • Virgincar, A., Doherty, S., & Siriwardhana, C. (2016). The impact of forced migration on the mental health of the elderly: A scoping review. International Psychogeriatrics, 28(6), 889–896. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610216000193
  • Vonnahme, L. A., Lankau, E. W., Ao, T., Shetty, S., & Cardozo, B. L. (2015). Factors associated with symptoms of depression among Bhutanese refugees in the United States. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 17(6), 1705–1714. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-014-0120-x
  • World Health Organization. (2018). Health of older refugees and migrants: Technical guidance. Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe. Available on-line at: http://www.euro.who.int/en/publications/abstracts/health-of-older-refugees-and-migrants-2018
  • Yang, F. M., & Kao, S. T. (2014). Item response theory for measurement validity. Shanghai Archives of Psychiatry, 26(3), 171–177. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-0829.2014.03.010

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.