Lifetime vicarious experiences of major discrimination and depressive symptoms among middle-aged and older black adults

References

• Abrams, L. R., & Mehta, N. K. (2019). Changes in depressive symptoms over age among older Americans: Differences by gender, race/ethnicity, education, and birth cohort. SSM - Population Health, 7, 100399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100399
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson, R. E., Hussain, S. B., Wilson, M. N., Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., & Williams, J. L. (2015). Pathways to pain. The Journal of Black Psychology, 41(6), 491–512. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798414548511
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonilla-Silva, E. (2015). More than prejudice. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 1(1), 73–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332649214557042
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bor, J., Venkataramani, A. S., Williams, D. R., & Tsai, A. C. (2018). Police killings and their spillover effects on the mental health of black Americans: A population-based, quasi-experimental study. The Lancet, 392(10144), 302–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31130-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boulter, A. C., Quinlan, J., Miró-Herrans, A. T., Pearson, L. N., Todd, N. L., Gravlee, C. C., & Mulligan, C. J, HEAT Steering Committee. (2015). Interaction of alu polymorphisms and novel measures of discrimination in association with blood pressure in African Americans living in Tallahassee, Florida. Human Biology, 87(4), 295–305. https://doi.org/10.13110/humanbiology.87.4.0295
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, R. L. (2014). Psychological distress and the intersection of gender and physical disability: Considering gender and disability-related risk factors. Sex Roles, 71(3–4), 171–181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-014-0385-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, T. N. (2003). Critical race theory speaks to the sociology of mental health: Mental health problems produced by racial stratification. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(3), 292. https://doi.org/10.2307/1519780
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, T. N., Turner, R. J., & Moore, T. R. (2016). The multidimensionality of health: Associations between allostatic load and self-report health measures in a community epidemiologic study. Health Sociology Review, 25(3), 272–287. https://doi.org/10.1080/14461242.2016.1184989
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chae, D. H., Yip, T., Martz, C. D., Chung, K., Richeson, J. A., Hajat, A., Curtis, D. S., Rogers, L. O., & LaVeist, T. A. (2021). Vicarious racism and vigilance during the COVID-19 pandemic: Mental health implications among Asian and Black Americans. Public Health Reports (Washington, DC: 1974), 136(4), 508–517. https://doi.org/10.1177/00333549211018675
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. The American Psychologist, 54(10), 805–816. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.10.805
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cobb, R. J., Parker, L. J., & Thorpe, R. J. (2020). Self-reported instances of major discrimination, race/ethnicity, and inflammation among older adults: Evidence from the health and retirement study. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 75(2), 291–296. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/gly267
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cobb, R. J., Sheehan, C. M., Louie, P., & Erving, C. L. (2022). Multiple reasons for perceived everyday discrimination and all-cause mortality risk among older Black adults. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 77(2), 310–314. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glab281
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colen, C. G., Li, Q., Reczek, C., & Williams, D. R. (2019). The intergenerational transmission of discrimination: Children’s experiences of unfair treatment and their mothers’ health at midlife. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 60(4), 474–492. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146519887347
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daniels, K. P., Valdez, Z., Chae, D. H., & Allen, A. M. (2020). Direct and vicarious racial discrimination at three life stages and preterm labor: Results from the African American women’s heart & health study. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 24(11), 1387–1395. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-020-03003-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Du Bois, W. E. B. (1899). The Philadelphia Negro: a social study. The University of Pennsylvania Press.
   Google Scholar
• Elder, G. H.Jr., (1994). Time, human agency, and social change: Perspectives on the life course. Social Psychology Quarterly, 57(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.2307/2786971
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuentecilla, J. L., Liu, Y., Huo, M., Kim, K., Birditt, K. S., Zarit, S. H., & Fingerman, K. L. (2020). Midlife adults’ daily support to children and parents: Implications for diurnal cortisol. Journal of Aging and Health, 32(9), 926–936. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264319863994
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gayman, M. D., Brown, R. L., & Cui, M. (2011). Depressive symptoms and bodily pain: The role of physical disability and social stress. Stress and Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress, 27(1), 52–53. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.1319
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gee, G. C., Hing, A., Mohammed, S., Tabor, D. C., & Williams, D. R. (2019). Racism and the life course: Taking time seriously. American Journal of Public Health, 109(S1), S43–S47. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2018.304766
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gee, G. C., Walsemann, K. M., & Brondolo, E. (2012). A life course perspective on how racism may be related to health inequities. American Journal of Public Health, 102(5), 967–974. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2012.300666
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goosby, B. J., Cheadle, J. E., & Mitchell, C. (2018). Stress-related biosocial mechanisms of discrimination and African American health inequities. Annual Review of Sociology, 44(1), 319–340. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-060116-053403
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goosby, B. J., & Heidbrink, C. (2013). The transgenerational consequences of discrimination on African-American health outcomes. Sociology Compass, 7(8), 630–643. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12054
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Harrell, S. P. (2000). A multidimensional conceptualization of racism-related stress: Implications for the well-being of people of color. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70(1), 42–57. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087722
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heard-Garris, N., Cale, M., Camaj, L., Hamati, M., & Dominguez, T. (2018). Transmitting Trauma: A systematic review of vicarious racism and child health. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 199, 230–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.04.018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, S. C. T., Anderson, R. E., Gaskin-Wasson, A. L., Sawyer, B. A., Applewhite, K., & Metzger, I. W. (2020). From “crib to coffin”: Navigating coping from racism-related stress throughout the lifespan of Black Americans. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 90(2), 267–282. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000430
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalibatseva, Z., & Leong, F. T. L. (2014). A critical review of culturally sensitive treatments for depression: Recommendations for intervention and research. Psychological Services, 11(4), 433–450. doi: 10.1037/a0036047[PMC][25383996]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping (1st ed.). Springer Publishing Company.
   Google Scholar
• Lewis, T. T., Barnes, L. L., Bienias, J. L., Lackland, D. T., Evans, D. A., & Mendes De Leon, C. F. (2009). Perceived discrimination and blood pressure in older African American and white adults. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 64(9), 1002–1008. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glp062
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis, T. T., Cogburn, C. D., & Williams, D. R. (2015). Self-reported experiences of discrimination and health: Scientific advances, ongoing controversies, and emerging issues. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 11(1), 407–440. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112728
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, S. Y., & Kawachi, I. (2017). Discrimination and telomere length among older adults in the United States. Public Health Reports (Washington, DC: 1974), 132(2), 220–230. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033354916689613
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Louie, P., & Upenieks, L. (2022). Vicarious discrimination, psychosocial resources, and mental health among Black Americans. Social Psychology Quarterly, 85(2), 187–209. https://doi.org/10.1177/01902725221079279
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martz, C. D., Allen, A. M., Fuller-Rowell, T. E., Spears, E. C., Lim, S. S., Drenkard, C., Chung, K., Hunter, E. A., & Chae, D. H. (2019). Vicarious racism stress and disease activity: The black women’s experiences living with lupus (bewell) study. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 6(5), 1044–1051. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-019-00606-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarland, M. J., Taylor, J., McFarland, C. A. S., & Friedman, K. L. (2018). Perceived unfair treatment by police, race, and telomere length: A Nashville community-based sample of black and white men. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 59(4), 585–600. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146518811144
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, D. A. (1981). The ‘sandwich’ generation: Adult children of the aging. Social Work, 26(5), 419–423. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/26.5.419
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monk, E. P. (2020). Linked fate and mental health among African Americans. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 266, 113340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113340
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moody, M. D. (2022). Vicarious experiences of major discrimination and the life satisfaction of Black and White adults from a community sample. Journal of Happiness Studies, 23(6), 2725–2743. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-022-00532-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moody, M. D., Brown, R. L., & Ciciurkaite, G. (2019). For better or worse: An assessment of the ‘linked lives’ concept and the race-based effects of partner stress on self-rated health among older adults. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 6(4), 861–867. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-019-00585-w
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moody, M. D., Browning, W. R., Hossain, M., & Clay, O. J. (2022). Vicarious experiences of major discrimination, anxiety symptoms, and mental health care utilization among Black adults. Social Science & Medicine, 114997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.114997
   Google Scholar
• Nam, C. B., & Boyd, M. (2004). Occupational status in 2000; over a century of census-based measurement. Population Research and Policy Review, 23(4), 327–358. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:POPU.0000040045.51228.34
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paradies, Y., Ben, J., Denson, N., Elias, A., Priest, N., Pieterse, A., Gupta, A., Kelaher, M., & Gee, G. (2015). Racism as a determinant of health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PloS One, 10(9), e0138511. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138511
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pascoe, E. A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135(4), 531–554. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016059
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearlin, L. I. (2010). The life course and the stress process: Some conceptual comparisons. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 65B(2), 207–215. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbp106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearlin, L. I., Menaghan, E. G., Lieberman, M. A., & Mullan, J. T. (1981). The stress process. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 22(4), 337–356. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136676
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phelan, J. C., & Link, B. G. (2015). Is racism a fundamental cause of inequalities in health? Annual Review of Sociology, 41(1), 311–330. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-073014-112305
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pickett, Y. R., Bazelais, K. N., & Bruce, M. L. (2013). Late-life depression in older African Americans: A comprehensive review of epidemiological and clinical data. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 28(9), 903–913. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.3908
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quillian, L., Pager, D., Hexel, O., & Midtbøen, A. H. (2017). Meta-analysis of field experiments shows no change in racial discrimination in hiring over time. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 114(41), 10870–10875. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1706255114
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quinlan, J., Pearson, L. N., Clukay, C. J., Mitchell, M. M., Boston, Q., Gravlee, C. C., & Mulligan, C. J. (2016). Genetic loci and novel discrimination measures associated with blood pressure variation in African Americans living in tallahassee. PloS One, 11(12), e0167700. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0167700
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rathod, S., Gega, L., Degnan, A., Pikard, J., Khan, T., Husain, N., Munshi, T., & Naeem, F. (2018). The current status of culturally adapted mental health interventions: A practice-focused review of meta-analyses. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 14, 165–178. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S138430
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts, A. W., Ogunwole, S. U., Blakeslee, L., & Rabe, M. A. (2018). The population 65 years and older in the United States: 2016 (American Community Survey Reports ACS-38). U.S. Census Bureau.
   Google Scholar
• Thoits, P. A. (2010). Stress and health: Major findings and policy implications. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 51(1_suppl), S41–S53. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146510383499
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas Tobin, C. S., & Moody, M. D. (2021). Does early life racial discrimination explain a mental health paradox among Black adults? Journal of Aging and Health, 33(5–6), 396–408. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264320988187
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thorpe, R. J., Parker, L. J., Cobb, R. J., Dillard, F., & Bowie, J. (2017). Association between discrimination and obesity in African-American men. Biodemography and Social Biology, 63(3), 253–261. https://doi.org/10.1080/19485565.2017.1353406
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Truong, K. A., Museus, S. D., & McGuire, K. M. (2016). Vicarious racism: A qualitative analysis of experiences with secondhand racism in graduate education. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 29(2), 224–247. https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2015.1023234
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner, R. J. (2013). Understanding health disparities: The relevance of the stress process model. Society and Mental Health, 3(3), 170–186. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156869313488121
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner, R. J., & Avison, W. R. (2003). Status variations in stress exposure: Implications for the interpretation of research on race, socioeconomic status, and gender. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(4), 488–505. https://doi.org/10.2307/1519795
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner, R. J., Thomas, C. S., & Brown, T. H. (2016). Childhood adversity and adult health: Evaluating intervening mechanisms. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 156, 114–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.02.026
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, D. R. (2018). Stress and the mental health of populations of color: Advancing our understanding of race-related stressors. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 59(4), 466–485. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146518814251
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, D. R., Gonzalez, H. M., Williams, S., Mohammed, S. A., Moomal, H., & Stein, D. J. (2008). Perceived discrimination, race and health in South Africa. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 67(3), 441–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.03.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, D. R., Lawrence, J. A., & Davis, B. A. (2019). Racism and Health: Evidence and Needed Research. Annual Review of Public Health, 40(1), 105–125. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040218-043750
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, D. R., & Mohammed, S. A. (2009). Discrimination and racial disparities in health: Evidence and needed research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32(1), 20–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-008-9185-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, D. R., Yu, Y., Jackson, J. S., & Anderson, N. B. (1997). Racial differences in physical and mental health. Journal of Health Psychology, 2(3), 335–351. https://doi.org/10.1177/135910539700200305
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Woodward, A. T., Taylor, R. J., Abelson, J. M., & Matusko, N. (2013). Major depressive disorder among older African Americans, Caribbean Blacks, and non-Hispanic whites: Secondary analysis of the National Survey of American Life. Depression and Anxiety, 30(6), 589–597. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar