Objectification and body esteem: age group patterns in women’s psychological functioning

References

• Adams, K. E., Tyler, J. M., Calogero, R., & Lee, J. (2017). Exploring the relationship between appearance-contingent self-worth and self-esteem: The roles of self-objectification and appearance anxiety. Body Image, 23, 176–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.10.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson, J. R., Holland, E., Heldreth, C., & Johnson, S. P. (2018). Revisiting the Jezebel stereotype: The impact of target race on sexual objectification. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 42(4), 461–476. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684318791543
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arroyo, A., & Andersen, K. K. (2016). The relationship between mother-daughter self-objectification: identifying direct, indirect, and conditional direct effects. Sex Roles, 74(5–6), 231–241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0554-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Augustus-Horvath, C. L., & Tylka, T. L. (2009). A test and extension of objectification theory as it predicts disordered eating: Does women’s age matter? Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56(2), 253–265. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014637
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey, K. A., Cline, L. E., & Gammage, K. L. (2016). Exploring the complexities of body image experiences in middle age and older adult women within an exercise context: The simultaneous existence of negative and positive body images. Body Image, 17, 88–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.02.007 26989980
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bosson, J. K., & Swann, W. B.Jr., (2009). Self-esteem. In Handbook of individual differences in social behavior (pp. 527–546). The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Breines, J. G., Crocker, J., & Garcia, J. A. (2008). Self-objectification and well-being in women’s daily lives. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(5), 583–598. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167207313727
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calogero, R. M. (2012). Objectification theory, self-objectification, and body image. In Encyclopedia of body image and human appearance (pp. 574–580). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384925-0.00091-2
   Google Scholar
• Calogero, R. M. (2013). On objects and actions: Situating self-objectification in a system justification context. In Gervais, Sarah J. (Ed.), Objectification and (De)humanization: 60th Nebraska symposium on motivation. University of Nebraska Press (pp. 97–126). ISBN 9781461469582.
   Google Scholar
• Calogero, R. M., & Pina, A. (2011). Body guilt: Preliminary evidence for a further subjective experience of self-objectification. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35(3), 428–440. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684311408564
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cash, T. F. (2004). Body image: Past, present, and future [Editorial]. Body Image, 1(1), 1–5. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1740-1445(03)00011-1
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chen, F. F., & Russo, N. F. (2010). Measurement invariance and the role of body consciousness in depressive symptoms. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34(3), 405–417. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2010.01585.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ching, B. H.-H., Wu, H. X., & Chen, T. T. (2021). Body weight contingent self-worth predicts depression in adolescent girls: The roles of self-esteem instability and interpersonal sexual objectification. Body Image, 36, 74–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.10.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choma, B. L., Visser, B. A., Pozzebon, J. A., Bogaert, A. F., Busseri, M. A., & Sadava, S. W. (2010). Self-objectification, self-esteem, and gender: Testing a moderated mediation model. Sex Roles, 63(9-10), 645–656. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9829-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, R., Newton-John, T., & Slater, A. (2018). ‘Selfie’-objectification: The role of selfies in self-objectification and disordered eating in young women. Computers in Human Behavior, 79, 68–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.10.027
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dagbovie-Mullins, S. A. (2013). Pigtails, ponytails, and getting tail: The infantilization and hyper-sexualization of African American females in popular culture. The Journal of Popular Culture, 46(4), 745–771. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpcu.12047
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daniels, E. A., Zurbriggen, E. L., & Monique Ward, L. (2020). Becoming an object: A review of self-objectification in girls. Body Image, 33, 278–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.02.016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davidson, M. M., Gervais, S. J., Canivez, G. L., & Cole, B. P. (2013). A psychometric examination of the interpersonal sexual objectification scale among college men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60(2), 239–250. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032075
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dodge, Y. (2008). The Concise Encyclopedia of Statistics. Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A.-G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149–1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03193146
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T.-A. (1997). Objectification theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(2), 173–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredrickson, B. L., Hendler, L. M., Nilsen, S., O’Barr, J. F., & Roberts, T.-A. (2011). Bringing back the body: A retrospective on the development of objectification theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35(4), 689–696. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684311426690
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredrickson, B. L., Roberts, T.-A., Noll, S. M., Quinn, D. M., & Twenge, J. M. (1998). That swimsuit becomes you: Sex differences in self-objectification, restrained eating, and math performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(1), 269–284. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.269
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gervais, S. J., & Eagan, S. (2017). Sexual objectification: The common thread connecting myriad forms of sexual violence against women. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 87(3), 226–232. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000257
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gillen, M. M. (2015). Associations between positive body image and indicators of men’s and women’s mental and physical health. Body Image, 13, 67–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.01.002 25682474
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grabe, S., & Hyde, J. S. (2009). Body objectification, MTV, and psychological outcomes among female adolescents. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 39(12), 2840–2858. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2009.00552.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, S. P., & Pritchard, M. E. (2003). Predictors of body image dissatisfaction in adult men and women. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 31(3), 215–222. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2003.31.3.215
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grippo, K. P., & Hill, M. S. (2008). Self-objectification, habitual body monitoring, and body dissatisfaction in older European American women: Exploring age and feminism as moderators. Body Image, 5(2), 173–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2007.11.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halliwell, E. (2015). Future directions for positive body image research. Body Image, 14, 177–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.03.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harper, B., & Tiggemann, M. (2008). The effect of thin ideal media images on women’s self-objectification, mood, and body image. Sex Roles, 58(9–10), 649–657. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9379-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd Ed.). Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Holland, E., Koval, P., Stratemeyer, M., Thomson, F., & Haslam, N. (2017). Sexual objectification in women’s daily lives: A smartphone ecological momentary assessment study. The British Journal of Social Psychology, 56(2), 314–333. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12152
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, B. A., & Griffiths, K. M. (2015). Self-objectification and depression: An integrative systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 171, 22–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.09.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilpela, L. S., Becker, C. B., Wesley, N., & Stewart, T. (2015). Body image in adult women: Moving beyond the younger years. Advances in Eating Disorders (Abingdon, England), 3(2), 144–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/21662630.2015.1012728
   Google Scholar
• Kok, R. M., & Reynolds, C. F.III (2017). Management of depression in older adults: A review. JAMA, 317(20), 2114–2122. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.5706
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koval, P., Holland, E., Zyphur, M. J., Stratemeyer, M., Knight, J. M., Bailen, N. H., Thompson, R. J., Roberts, T.-A., & Haslam, N. (2019). How does it feel to be treated like an object? Direct and indirect effects of exposure to sexual objectification on women’s emotions in daily life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 116(6), 885–898. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000161
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kozee, H. B., Tylka, T. L., Augustus-Horvath, C. L., & Denchik, A. (2007). Development and psychometric evaluation of the interpersonal sexual objectification scale. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31(2), 176–189. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00351.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDade-Montez, E., Wallander, J., & Cameron, L. (2017). Sexualization in U.S. Latina and White girls’ preferred children’s television programs. Sex Roles, 77(1-2), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0692-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKinley, N. M. (2006). The developmental and cultural contexts of objectified body consciousness: A longitudinal analysis of two cohorts of women. Developmental Psychology, 42(4), 679–687. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.4.679
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKinley, N. M., & Lyon, L. A. (2008). Menopausal attitudes, objectified body consciousness, aging anxiety, and body esteem: European American women’s body experiences in midlife. Body Image, 5(4), 375–380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2008.07.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier, L. L., Orth, U., Denissen, J. J., & Kühnel, A. (2011). Age differences in instability, contingency, and level of self-esteem across the life span. Journal of Research in Personality, 45(6), 604–612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2011.08.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mendelson, B. K., Mendelson, M. J., & White, D. R. (2001). Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults. Journal of Personality Assessment, 76(1), 90–106. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327752JPA7601_6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mercurio, A. E., & Landry, L. J. (2008). Self-objectification and well-being: The impact of self-objectification on women’s overall sense of self-worth and life satisfaction. Sex Roles, 58(7-8), 458–466. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9357-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moss, L., Ward, L. M., & Overstreet, N. M. (2022). Do objectification, gender beliefs, or racial stereotypes mediate associations between Black adults’ media use and acceptance of intimate partner violence? Psychology of Violence, 12(2), 63–73. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000412
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson, S. C., Kling, J., Wängqvist, M., Frisén, A., & Syed, M. (2018). Identity and the body: Trajectories of body esteem from adolescence to emerging adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 54(6), 1159–1171. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000435
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noll, S. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). A mediational model linking self-objectification, body shame, and disordered eating. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22(4), 623–636. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1998.tb00181.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olchowska-Kotala, A. (2018). Body esteem and self-esteem in middle-aged women. Journal of Women & Aging, 30(5), 417–427. https://doi.org/10.1080/08952841.2017.1313012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orth, U., & Robins, R. W. (2014). The development of self-esteem. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(5), 381–387. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414547414
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peat, C. M., Peyerl, N. L., & Muehlenkamp, J. J. (2008). Body image and eating disorders in older adults: A review. The Journal of General Psychology, 135(4), 343–358. https://doi.org/10.3200/GENP.135.4.343-358
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers: A Journal of the Psychonomic Society, Inc, 36(4), 717–731. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03206553
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reed, A. E., & Carstensen, L. L. (2012). The theory behind the age-related positivity effect. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 339. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00339
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Remes, O., Brayne, C., van der Linde, R., & Lafortune, L. (2016). A systematic review of reviews on the prevalence of anxiety disorders in adult populations. Brain and Behavior, 6(7), e00497. https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.497
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rochon, P. A., Kalia, S., & Higgs, P. (2021). Gendered ageism: Addressing discrimination based on age and sex. Lancet (London, England), 398(10301), 648–649. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01636-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rollero, C. (2013). Men and women facing objectification: The effects of media models on well-being, self-esteem and ambivalent sexism. Revista de Psicología Social, 28(3), 373–382. https://doi.org/10.1174/021347413807719166
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Runfola, C. D., Von Holle, A., Trace, S. E., Brownley, K. A., Hofmeier, S. M., Gagne, D. A., & Bulik, C. M. (2013). Body dissatisfaction in women across the lifespan: Results of the UNC-SELF and Gender and Body Image (GABI) Studies. European Eating Disorders Review: The Journal of the Eating Disorders Association, 21(1), 52–59. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.2201
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sabik, N. J. (2015). Ageism and body esteem: Associations with psychological well-being among late middle-aged African American and European American women. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 70(2), 191–201. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbt080
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sabik, N. J. (2017). Is social engagement linked to body image and depression among aging women? Journal of Women & Aging, 29(5), 405–416. https://doi.org/10.1080/08952841.2016.1213106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sáez, G., Valor-Segura, I., & Expósito, F. (2019). Interpersonal sexual objectification experiences: Psychological and social well-being consequences for women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(4), 741–762. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516645813
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherman, A. M., Allemand, H., & Prickett, S. (2020). Hypersexualization and sexualization in advertisements for Halloween costumes. Sex Roles, 83(3–4), 254–266. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-01105-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skowronski, M., Busching, R., & Krahé, B. (2022). Women’s exposure to sexualized TV, self-objectification, and consideration of cosmetic surgery: The role of age. Psychology of Popular Media, 11(2), 117–124. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000348
   Google Scholar
• Strelan, P., Mehaffey, S. J., & Tiggemann, M. (2003). Self-objectification and esteem in young women: The mediating role of reasons for exercise. Sex Roles, 48(1/2), 89–95. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022300930307
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swami, V., Weis, L., Barron, D., & Furnham, A. (2018). Positive body image is positively associated with hedonic (emotional) and eudaimonic (psychological and social) well-being in British adults. The Journal of Social Psychology, 158(5), 541–552. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2017.1392278
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szymanski, D. M., & Henning, S. L. (2007). The role of self-objectification in women’s depression: A test of objectification theory. Sex Roles, 56(1–2), 45–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9147-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th Ed.). Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Tiggemann, M., & Kuring, J. K. (2004). The role of body objectification in disordered eating and depressed mood. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43(Pt 3), 299–311. https://doi.org/10.1348/0144665031752925
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tiggemann, M., & Lynch, J. E. (2001). Body image across the life span in adult women: The role of self-objectification. Developmental Psychology, 37(2), 243–253. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.37.2.243
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiggemann, M., & Slater, A. (2015). The role of self-objectification in the mental health of early adolescent girls: Predictors and consequences. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 40(7), 704–711. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsv021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiggemann, M., & Williams, E. (2012). The role of self-objectification in disordered rating, depressed mood, and sexual functioning among women: A comprehensive test of objectification theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36(1), 66–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684311420250
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tylka, T. L. (2019). Body appreciation. In Handbook of positive body image and embodiment: Constructs, protective factors, and interventions (pp. 22–32). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/med-psych/9780190841874.003.0003
   Google Scholar
• Tylka, T. L., & Sabik, N. J. (2010). Integrating social comparison theory and self-esteem within objectification theory to predict women’s disordered eating. Sex Roles, 63(1-2), 18–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9785-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tylka, T. L., & Wood-Barcalow, N. L. (2015). What is and what is not positive body image? Conceptual foundations and construct definition. Body Image, 14, 118–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.04.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward, L. M. (2016). Media and sexualization: State of empirical research, 1995–2015. Journal of Sex Research, 53(4–5), 560–577. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1142496
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wardenaar, K. J., van Veen, T., Giltay, E. J., de Beurs, E., Penninx, B. W. J. H., & Zitman, F. G. (2010). Development and validation of a 30-item short adaptation of the Mood and Anxiety Symptoms Questionnaire (MASQ). Psychiatry Research, 179(1), 101–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2009.03.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watt, A. D., & Konnert, C. A. (2020). Body satisfaction and self-esteem among middle-aged and older women: The mediating roles of social and temporal comparisons and self-objectification. Aging & Mental Health, 24(5), 797–804. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2018.1544222
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodward, K., McIlwain, D., & Mond, J. (2019). Feelings about the self and body in eating disturbances: The role of internalized shame, self-esteem, externalized self-perceptions, and body shame. Self and Identity, 18(2), 159–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2017.1403373
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeigler-Hill, V., & Myers, E. M. (2012). A review of gender differences in self-esteem. In Psychology of gender differences (pp. 131–143). Nova Science Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Zurbriggen, E. L., & Roberts, T.-A. (Eds.). (2013). The sexualization of girls and girlhood: Causes, consequences, and resistance (pp. x–328). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar