248
Views
8
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Papers

Depleted uranium: properties, military use and health risks

Pages 41-64 | Accepted 17 Sep 2008, Published online: 23 Feb 2009

References

  • Aitken , M . 1999 . Gulf war leaves legacy of cancer . BMJ , 319 : 401
  • UNEP Scientific Mission to Kosovo . Depleted uranium in Kosovo, post-conflict environmental assessment Geneva, Switzerland; 2001 Nov
  • United Nations Environmental Programme and United Nations Centre for Human Settlements. UNEP/UNCHS Balkans task force (BTF): the potential effects on human health and the environment arising from possible use of depleted uranium during the 1999 Kosovo conflict. A preliminary assessment Geneva; 1999 Oct
  • Harley , N H , Foulkes , E C , Hilborne , L H and Rand , A . 1999 . A review of the scientific literature as it pertains to Gulf War illnesses. Vol. 7, Depleted uranium , Santa Monica, CA : RAND Corporation .
  • UNIDIR . 2008 . “ The health effects of depleted uranium. Disarmament forum ” . Geneva : United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research . Number 3
  • 2008 . Effects of the use of armaments and ammunitions containing depleted uranium. Report of the secretary-general A/63/150 , United Nations : United Nations General Assembly .
  • US National Research Council . 2008 . Review of toxicologic and radiologic risks to military personnel from exposure to depleted uranium during and after combat , Washington, DC : National Academies Press .
  • Parkhurst , M A , Szrom , F , Guilmette , R A , Holmes , T D , Cheng , Y S , Kenoyer , J L , Collins , J W , Sanderson , T E , Fliszar , R W Gold , K . Capstone depleted uranium aerosols: generation and characterization. Vol. 2, Appendices Attachment 2 of depleted uranium aerosol doses and risks: summary of U.S. assessments (Capstone summary report). PNNL-14168. Prepared for the U.S. Department of the Army, by Pacific Northwest National Laboratory operated by Battelle for the U.S. Department of Energy; 2004 [cited 2008 Nov 7]. Available from: http://fhp.osd.mil/du/du_capstone/index.pdf
  • The Royal Society . 2001 . The health hazards of depleted uranium munitions: Parts I and II , London : The Royal Society .
  • World Health Organization . 2001 . Depleted uranium: sources, exposures and health effects , Geneva : WHO document WHO/SDE/PHE/01.1 .
  • Fulco C E Liverman C T Sox H C Gulf war and health. Vol. 1, Depleted uranium, sarin, pyridostigmine bromide, vaccines National Academies Press Washington, DC 2000
  • Office of the Special Assistant for Gulf War Illnesses (OSAGWI) . 2000 . Environmental exposure report: depleted uranium Washington, DC, US
  • Harley , N H , Foulkes , E C , Hilborne , L H , Hudson , A and Anthony , C R . 1999 . Toxicological profile for uranium. Agency for toxic substances and disease registry , Atlanta, GA : US department of health and human services .
  • United States Environmental Protection Agency . 2006 . Depleted uranium: technical briefing Washington, DC 20460 US: EPA-402-R-06-011 office of air and radiation
  • Taylor , D M and Taylor , S K . 1997 . Environmental uranium and human health . Rev Environ Health , 12 : 147 – 157 .
  • Fetter , S and von Hippel , F N . 1999 . The hazard posed by depleted uranium munitions . Sci Glob Secur , 8 : 125 – 161 .
  • Brugge , D , deLemos , J L and Oldmixon , B . 2005 . Exposure pathways and health effects associated with chemical and radiological toxicity of natural uranium: a review . Rev Environ Health , 20 : 177 – 193 .
  • Miller A C Depleted uranium: properties, uses, and health consequences CRC Press Boca Raton, FL 2007
  • Science and Technology Options Assessment Panel . Depleted uranium: environmental and health effects in the Gulf war, Bosnia and Kosovo, document STOA 100 EN European parliament; 2001
  • Trueman , E R , Black , S and Read , D . 2003 . Characterisation of depleted uranium (DU) from an Unfired CHARM-3 penetrator . Sci Total Environ , 327 : 337 – 340 .
  • Bishop , D . Why depleted uranium exhibits more than 60% of the radioactivity of natural uranium. International depleted uranium study team 4 [cited 2008 Nov 7]. Available from: www.idust.net/index_files/page0009.htm
  • US EPA and US DOE . 1999 . Understanding variation in partition coefficient, Kd values. Vol. 2, Review of geochemistry and available Kd values for cadmium, cesium, chromium, lead, plutonium, radium, strontium, thorium, tritium, and uranium, EPA-402-R-99-004B , Washington, DC : Environmental Protection Agency .
  • Schimmack , W , Gerstmann , U , Schultz , W and Geipel , G . 2007 . Long-term corrosion and leaching of depleted uranium (DU) in soil . Radiat Environ Biophys , 46 : 221 – 227 .
  • WHO . 1998 . Guidelines for drinking-water quality. 2nd ed. Addendum to Vol. 2, Health criteria and other supporting information , Geneva : World Health Organization .
  • Associated Press . 2009 . Seehofer kündigt bundesweiten Uran-Grenzwert für Trinkwasser an. [German Federal Minister for Consumer Protection announces nationwide limit for uranium in drinking water] Available from: www.ap-online.de
  • Bundesrats-Drucksache . 2006 . 711/06 v. 12.10.2006; 828. Sitzung v. 24.11
  • Health Canada . 2001 . Guidelines for Canadian drinking water quality: supporting documentation—uranium , Ottawa : Federal Provincial Territorial Committee on Drinking Water . [cited 2008 Nov 7]. Available from: www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hecs-sesc/water/dwgsup.htm
  • Pellmar , T C , Fuciarelli , A F , Ejnik , J W , Hamilton , M , Hogan , J , Strocko , S , Emond , C , Mottaz , H M and Landauer , M R . 1999 . Distribution of uranium in rats implanted with depleted uranium pellets . Toxicol Sci , 49 : 29 – 39 .
  • Arfsten , D P , Wilfong , E R , Bekkedal , M , Johnson , E W , McInurf , S M , Egers , J S , Schaeffer , D J and Still , K R . 2007 . Evaluation of the effects of implanted depleted uranium (DU) pelletson adult rat behavior and toxicological endpoints . J Toxicol Environ Health , 70 : 1995 – 2010 .
  • Parrish , R R , Horstwood , M , Arnason , J G , Chenery , S , Brewer , T , Lloyd , N S and Carpenter , D O . 2008 . Depleted uranium contamination by inhalation exposure and its detection after approximately 20 years: implications for human health assessment . Sci Total Environ , 390 : 58 – 68 .
  • Kurttio , P , Auvinen , A , Salonen , L , Saha , H , Pekkanen , J , Makelinen , I , Vaisanen , S B , Pentti , I M and Komulainen , H . 2002 . Renal effects of uranium in drinking water environmental health perspectives , 110 : 337 – 342 .
  • Craig , D K . Chemical and radiological toxicity of uranium and its compounds Document WSRC-TR-2001-00331, prepared for Westinghouse Savannah river company; 2001 [cited 2008 Nov 7]. Available from: <sti.srs.gov/fulltext/tr2001331/tr2001331.html
  • Hartmann , H M . 2000 . Overview of toxicity data and risk assessment methods for evaluating the chemical effects of depleted uranium compounds . Hum Ecol Risk Assess , 6 : 851 – 874 .
  • Raymond-Whish , S , Mayer , L P , O'Neal , T , Martinez , A , Sellers , M A , Christian , P J , Marion , S L , Begay , C , Propper , C R Hoyer , P B . 2997 . Drinking water with uranium below U.S. EPA water standard causes estrogen receptor-dependent responses in female mice . Environ Health Perspect , 115 : 1711 – 1716 .
  • Dyer , C A . 2007 . “ Heavy metals as endocrine-disrupting chemicals ” . In Endocrine-disrupting chemicals: from basic research to clinical practice , Edited by: Gore , A C . 111 – 133 . Totowa, NJ : Humana Press .
  • Brama , M , Gnessi , L , Basciani , S , Cerulli , N , Politi , L and Spera , G . 2007 . Cadmium induces mitogenic signaling in breast cancer cell by an erα-dependent mechanism . Mol Cell Endocrinol , 264 : 102 – 108 .
  • Alonso-González , C , González , A , Mazarrasa , O , Guezmes , A , Sánchez-Mateos , S and Martinez-Campa , C . 2007 . Melatonin prevents the estrogenic effects of sub-chronic administration of cadmium on mice mammary glands and uterus . J Pineal Res , 42 : 403 – 410 .
  • Tickell , O . 2008 . How war debris could cause cancer . New Sci , 2672 : 7
  • Baverstock , K . Presentation to the defence committee of the Belgian house of representatives: 20 November 2006 [cited 2008 Nov 7]. Available from: http://www.motherearth.org/du/keithkamer_nl.pdf
  • Miller , A C , Brooks , K , Stewart , M , Anderson , B , Shi , L , McClain , D and Page , N . 2003 . Genomic instability in human osteoblast cells after exposure to depleted uranium: delayed lethality and micronuclei formation . J Environ Radioact , 64 : 247 – 259 .
  • Miller , A C , Fuciarelli , A F , Jackson , W E , Ejnik , E J , Emond , C , Strocko , S , Hogan , J , Page , N and Pellmar , T . 1998 . Urinary and serum mutagenicity studies with rats implanted with depleted uranium or tantalum pellets . Mutagenesis , 13 : 643 – 648 .
  • Miller , A C , Brooks , K , Stewart , M , Anderson , B , Shi , L , McClain , D and Page , N . 2005 . Leukemic transformation of haematopoietic cells in mice internally exposed to depleted uranium . Mol Cell Biochem , 279 : 97 – 104 .
  • Yang , Z H . 2002 . Malignant transformation of human bronchial epithelial cell (BEAS-2B) induced by depleted uranium [article in Chinese] . Ai Zheng , 21 : 944 – 948 .
  • Miller , A C , Jiaquan , X , Stewart , M , Prasanna , G S and Page , N . 2002 . Potential late health effects of depleted uranium and tungsten used in armor-piercing munitions: comparison of neoplastic transformation and genotoxicity with the known carcinogen nickel . Mil Med , 167 : 120 – 122 .
  • Miller , A C , Xu , J M , Stewart , K , Brooks , S , Hodge , Shi , L , Page , N and McClain , D . 2002 . Observation of radiation-specific damage in human cells exposed to depleted uranium: dicentric frequency and neoplastic transformation as endpoints . Radiat Prot Dosimetry , 99 : 275 – 278 .
  • Miller , A C , Xu , M , Stewart , K , Brooks , S , Hodge , L , Shi , N , Page and McClain , D . 2007 . Observation of radiation-specific damage in cells exposed to depleted uranium: hprt gene mutation frequency . Radiat Meas , 42 : 1029 – 1032 .
  • Miller , A C , Stewart , M , Brooks , K , Shi , L and Page , N . 2002 . Depleted uranium-catalyzed oxidative DNA damage: absence of significant α particle decay . J Inorg Biochem , 91 : 246 – 252 .
  • Miller , A C , Brooks , K , Smith , J and Page , N . 2004 . Effect of the militarily-relevant heavy metals, depleted uranium and heavy metal tungsten alloy on gene expression in human liver carcinoma cells (HepG2) . Mol Cell Biochem , 255 : 247 – 256 .
  • Stearns , D M , Yazzie , M , Bradley , A S , Coryell , V H , Shelley , J T , Ashby , A , Asplund , C S and Lantz , R C . 2005 . Uranyl acetate induces hprt mutations and uranium-DNA adducts in Chinese hamster ovary EM9 cells . Mutagenesis , 20 : 417 – 423 .
  • Hu , Q Y and Zhu , S P . 1990 . Induction of chromosomal aberrations in male mouse germ cells by uranyl fluoride containing enriched uranium . Mutat Res , 244 : 209 – 214 .
  • Lin , R H , Wu , L J , Lee , C H and Lin-Shiau , S Y . 1993 . Cytogenetic toxicity of uranyl nitrate in Chinese hamster ovary cells . Mutat Res , 319 : 197 – 203 .
  • Miller , A C , Xu , J , Stewart , M , Prasanna , P G and Page , N . 2000 . Potential health effects of the heavy metals, depleted uranium and tungsten, used in armor-piercing munitions: comparison of neoplastic transformation, mutagenicity, genomic instability, and oncogenesis . Met Ions Biol Med , 6 : 209 – 211 .
  • Wise , S S , Thompson , W D and AbouEl-Makarim , A . 2007 . Particulate depleted uranium is cytotoxic and clastogenic to human lung cells . Chem Res Toxicol , 20 : 815 – 820 .
  • Leach , L J , Maynard , E A , Hodge , H C , Scott , J K , Yuile , C L , Sylvester , G E and Wilson , H B . 1970 . A five-year inhalation study with natural uranium dioxide (UO2) dust. I. Retention and biologic effect in the monkey, dog and rat . Health Phys , 18 : 599 – 612 .
  • Leach , L J , Yuile , C L , Hodge , H C , Sylvester , G E and Wilson , H B . 1973 . A five-year inhalation study with natural uranium dioxide (UO2) dust. II. Post-exposure retention and biologic effects in the monkey, dog and rat . Health Phys , 25 : 239 – 258 .
  • Monleau , M , Bussy , C , Lestaevel , P , Houpert , P , Paquet , F and Chazel , V . 2006 . Distribution and genotoxic effects after successive exposure to different uranium oxide particles inhaled by rats . Inhal Toxicol , 18 : 885 – 894 .
  • Hahn , F F , Guilmette , R A and Hoover , M D . 1999 . Toxicity of depleted uranium fragments in wistar rats . Toxicol Sci , 48 : 333
  • Hahn , F F , Guilmette , R A and Hoover , M D . 2002 . Implanted depleted uranium fragments cause soft tissue sarcomas in the muscles of rats . Environ Health Perspect , 110 : 51 – 59 .
  • Miller , A C , Blakely , W F , Livengood , D , Whittaker , T , Xu , J , Ejnik , J W , Hamilton , M M , Parlette , E , St. John , T Gerstenberg , H M . 1998 . Transformation of human osteoblast cells to the tumorigenic phenotype by depleted uranium-uranyl chloride . Environ Health Perspect , 106 : 465 – 471 .
  • Domingo , J L . 1995 . Chemical toxicity of uranium . Toxicol Ecotoxicol News , 2 : 74 – 78 .
  • McDiarmid , M A , Engelhardt , S M , Oliver , M , Gucer , P , Wilson , P D , Kane , R , Cernich , A , Kaup , B , Anderson , L Hoover , D . 2007 . Health surveillance of Gulf War I veterans exposed to depleted uranium: updating the cohort . Health Phys , 93 : 60 – 73 .
  • Zaire , R , Notter , M , Riedel , W and Thiel , E . 1997 . Unexpected rates of chromosomal instabilities and alterations of hormone levels in Namibian miners . Radiat Res , 147 : 579 – 584 .
  • Altman , D G and Bland , J M . 1997 . Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence . BMJ , 311 : 485
  • Al Sadoon , I , Hassan , G G and Yacoub , A A-H . 2002 . “ Depleted uranium and health of people in Basrah: epidemiological evidence. Incidence and pattern of congenital anomalies among births in Basrah during the period 1990–1998 ” . In Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research Republic of Iraq, selected research works on the effect of DU on man and environment in Iraq [cited 2008 Nov 7]. Available from: idust.net/Docs/IQSRWrks/SelWks03.pdf
  • Fasy , T . 2003 . The recent epidemic of paediatric malignancies and congenital malformations in Iraq: the biological plausibility of depleted uranium as a carcinogen and a teratogen . Paper presented at: the Iraqi-American Academics' Symposium for Peace . Jan 14–16 2003 . [cited 2008 Nov 7]. Available from: www.uraniumconference.org/fasy_jun_14_03.pdf
  • Hindin , R , Brugge , D and Panikkar , B . 2005 . Teratogenicity of depleted uranium aerosols: a review from an epidemiological perspective . Environ Health , 4 : 17
  • Miller , A C , Jiaquan , X , Stewart , M , Prasanna , G S and Page , N . Potential late health effects of depleted uranium and tungsten used in armor-piercing munitions op. cit., p. 275
  • Hotopf , M and Wessely , S . 2005 . Can epidemiology clear the fog of war? Lessons from the 1990–91 Gulf war . Int J Epidemiol , 34 : 791 – 800 .
  • Fahey , D . 2000 Mar 30 . Don't look, don't find: Gulf war veterans, the U.S. Government and depleted uranium 1990–2000 , 20 – 21 and 28 . Lewiston, ME : The Military Toxics Project .
  • Baverstock , K , Mothersill , C and Thorne , M . 2001 . Radiological toxicity of DU (suppressed WHO document) 5 Nov, p. 4 [cited 2008 Nov 7]. Available from: http://www.mindfully.org/Nucs/DU-Radiological-toxicity-WHO5nov01.htm
  • Miller , A C and McClain , D . 2007 . A review of depleted uranium biological effects: in vitro and in vivo studies . Rev Environ Health , 22 : 75 – 89 .
  • Hey , E . The precautionary principle. Where does it come from and where might it lead in the case of radioactive releases to the environment . IAEA, Proceedings of an International Atomic Energy Agency Symposium on the Environmental Impact of Radioactive Releases . Vienna. Document IAEA-SM-339/195; 1999
  • UN General Assembly Resolution 62/30 of 2007 . 5 Dec. UN document A/RES/62/30, 10 Jan 2008
  • European Parliament Resolution of 22 May 2008 . (Depleted) uranium weapons and their effect on human health and the environment – towards a global ban on the use of such weapons document P6_TA(2008)0233
  • Bhat , R K . 2000 . Tank-automotive and armaments command (TACOM) and army material command (AMC) review of transuranics (TRU) in depleted uranium armor, memorandum , Fort Belvoir, VA : Army test measurement and diagnostic equipment activity .
  • Davis , M . 2003 . “ Overview of illnesses in Gulf war veterans ” . In Gulf war and health. Vol. 2, Insecticides and solvents , Edited by: Colwill , J M . 533 – 561 . Washington, DC : National Academies Press .
  • Komaroff , A L . 2005 . Unexplained suffering in the aftermath of war . Ann Intern Med , 142 : 938 – 939 . [cited 2008 Nov 7]. Available from: www.annals.org/cgi/reprint/142/11/938.pdf
  • Eisen , S A , Kang , H K , Murphy , F M , Blanchard , M S , Reda , D J , Henderson , W G , Toomey , R , Jackson , L W , Alpern , R Parks , B J . 2005 . Gulf war veterans health: medical evaluation of a US cohort . Ann Intern Med , 142 : 881 – 890 .
  • Durakovic , A . 2003 . Undiagnosed illnesses and radioactive warfare . Croat Med J , 44 : 520 – 532 .
  • Schröder , H , Heimers , A , Frentzel-Beyme , R , Schott , A and Hoffmann , W . 2003 . Chromosome aberration analysis in peripheral lymphocytes of Gulf war and Balkans war veterans . Radiat Prot Dosimetry , 103 : 211 – 220 .
  • Wise Uranium Project . Depleted uranium inventories Available from: www.wise-uranium.org/eddat.html [Updated April 2008]
  • Bertell , R . 2006 . Depleted uranium: all the questions about DU and Gulf war syndrome are not yet answered . Int J Health Sci , 36 : 503 – 520 .
  • Gee , D . 2008 . Establishing evidence for early action: the prevention of reproductive and developmental harm . Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol , 102 : 257 – 266 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.