Characterizing Nonlinear Effects in Vertical Site Response of Dry Soils Using KiK-Net Data

References

• Allen, N. F., R. D. Woods, and F. E. Richart. 1980. Fluid wave propagation in saturated and nearly saturated sands. Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division 106 (3): 235–254‏. doi: 10.1061/AJGEB6.0000931.
   Google Scholar
• Bahrampouri, M., A. Rodriguez-Marek, S. Shahi, and H. Dawood. 2021. An updated database for ground motion parameters for KiK-net records. Earthquake Spectra 37 (1): 505–522‏. doi: 10.1177/8755293020952447.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beresnev, I. A., A. M. Nightengale, and W. J. Silva. 2002. Properties of vertical ground motions. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 92 (8): 3152–3164‏. doi: 10.1785/0120020009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beresnev, I. A., and K. L. Wen. 1996. Nonlinear soil response—A reality? Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 86 (6): 1964–78.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloomfield, P. 2004. Fourier analysis of time series: An introduction. Canada: John Wiley & Sons‏.
   Google Scholar
• Bonilla, L. F., P. Guéguen, and C. Gélis. 2021. Contribution of K-net and KiK-net data to the monitoring of nonlinear properties of the shallow crust.
   Google Scholar
• Boore, D. M. 2005. On pads and filters: Processing strong-motion data. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 95 (2): 745–750‏. doi: 10.1785/0120040160.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bozorgnia, Y., M. Niazi, and K. W. Campbell. 1995. Characteristics of free-field vertical ground motion during the Northridge earthquake. Earthquake Spectra 11 (4): 515–525‏. doi: 10.1193/1.1585825.
   Google Scholar
• Bradley, B. A., and M. Cubrinovski. 2011. Near-source strong ground motions observed in the 22 February 2011 christchurch earthquake. Seismological Research Letters 82 (6): 853–865‏. doi: 10.1785/gssrl.82.6.853.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cadet, H., P. Y. Bard, A. M. Duval, and E. Bertrand. 2012. Site effect assessment using KiK-net data: Part 2—site amplification prediction equation based on f 0 and Vsz. Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering 10 (2): 451–89. doi: 10.1007/s10518-011-9324-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castro-Cruz, D., J. Regnier, E. Bertrand, and F. Courboulex. 2020. A new parameter to empirically describe and predict the non-linear seismic response of sites derived from the analysis of KiK-Net database. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 128: 105833. doi: 10.1016/j.soildyn.2019.105833.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crotwell, H. P., T. J. Owens, and J. Ritsema. 1999. The TauP Toolkit: Flexible seismic travel-time and ray-path utilities. Seismological Research Letters 70 (2): 154–160‏. doi: 10.1785/gssrl.70.2.154.
   Google Scholar
• Darendeli, M. B. 2001. Development of a new family of normalized modulus reduction and material damping curves. The University of Texas at Austin.
   Google Scholar
• Dawood, H. M., A. Rodriguez-Marek, J. Bayless, C. Goulet, and E. Thompson. 2016. A flatfile for the KiK-net database processed using an automated protocol. Earthquake Spectra 32 (2): 1281–1302‏. doi: 10.1193/071214eqs106.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Derras, B., P. Y. Bard, J. Régnier, and H. Cadet. 2020. Non-linear modulation of site response: Sensitivity to various surface ground-motion intensity measures and site-condition proxies using a neural network approach. Engineering Geology 269: 105500‏. doi: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2020.105500.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Du, W. 2018. Effects of directionality and vertical component of ground motions on seismic slope displacements in Newmark sliding-block analysis. Engineering Geology 29: 13–21. doi: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2018.03.012.
   Google Scholar
• EPRI. 1993. Guidelines for determining design basis ground motions. Electric Power Research Institute. Report EPRI Tr-102293.
   Google Scholar
• Frid, M., and R. Kamai. 2020. An analytical approach for estimating the spectral P/S ratio within ground motions. Computers and Geotechnics 119: 103379‏. doi: 10.1016/j.compgeo.2019.103379.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guéguen, P., L. F. Bonilla, and J. Douglas. 2019. Comparison of soil nonlinearity (in situ stress–strain relation and g/gmax reduction) observed in strong‐motion databases and modeled in ground‐motion prediction equationscomparison of soil nonlinearity observed in strong‐motion databases and modeled in GMPEs. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 109 (1): 178–186‏.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gülerce, Z., R. Kamai, N. A. Abrahamson, and W. J. Silva. 2017. Ground motion prediction equations for the vertical ground motion component based on the NGA-W2 database. Earthquake Spectra 33 (2): 499–528‏. doi: 10.1193/121814EQS213M.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Han, B., Z. Yang, L. Zdravkovic, and S. Kontoe. 2015. Non-linearity of gravelly soils under seismic compressional deformation based on KiK-net downhole array observations. Geotechnique Letters 5 (4): 287–293‏. doi: 10.1680/jgele.15.00130.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hashash, Y. M., C. Phillips, and D. R. Groholski. 2010. Recent advances in non-linear site response analysis. 5th International Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics ( No. 4).‏ May. San Diego, California.
   Google Scholar
• Idriss, I. M. 1990. Response of soft soil sites during earthquakes. Proceedings of HB Seed Memorial Symposium, vol. 2, 273–89. Vancouver, Canada.‏
   Google Scholar
• Ji, C., A. Cabas, L. F. Bonilla, and C. Gelis. 2021. Effects of nonlinear soil behavior on kappa (κ): observations from the KiK net database. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America‏ 111 (4): 2138–57. doi: 10.1785/0120200286.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaklamanos, J., L. G. Baise, E. M. Thompson, and L. Dorfmann. 2015. Comparison of 1D linear, equivalent-linear, and nonlinear site response models at six KiK-net validation sites. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 69: 207–19. doi: 10.1016/j.soildyn.2014.10.016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaklamanos, J., and B. A. Bradley. 2018. Challenges in predicting seismic site response with 1D analyses: Conclusions from 114 KiK net vertical seismometer arrays. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 108 (5A): 2816–2838‏. doi: 10.1785/0120180062.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalkan, E. 2016. An automatic P‐phase arrival‐time picker. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 106 (3): 971–986‏. doi: 10.1785/0120150111.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamai, R., N. A. Abrahamson, and W. J. Silva. 2014. Nonlinear horizontal site amplification for constraining the NGA-West2 GMPEs. Earthquake Spectra 30 (3): 1223–1240‏. doi: 10.1193/070113EQS187M.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kishida, T., and C. C. Tsai. 2021. Wave velocities depending on shear strain, directionality, and excess pore water pressure from wildlife liquefaction array. Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering 19 (6): 2371–88. doi: 10.1007/s10518-021-01074-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Konno, K., and T. Ohmachi. 1998. Ground-motion characteristics estimated from spectral ratio between horizontal and vertical components of microtremor. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 88 (1): 228–241‏. doi: 10.1785/BSSA0880010228.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunnath, S. K., E. Erduran, Y. H. Chai, and M. Yashinsky. 2008. Effect of near-fault vertical ground motions on seismic response of highway overcrossings. Journal of Bridge Engineering 13 (3): 282–290‏. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)1084-0702(2008)13:3(282).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, H. W., and C. C. Tsai. 2018. Site effect of vertical motion-amplification behavior observed from downhole arrays. Journal of GeoEngineering 13 (1): 39–48‏.
   Google Scholar
• Nayak, C. B. 2021. A state-of-the-art review of vertical ground motion (VGM) characteristics, effects and provisions. Innovative Infrastructure Solutions 6 (2): 1–18‏. doi: 10.1007/s41062-021-00491-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newmark, N. M., and W. J. Hall. 1982. Earthquake spectra and designVolume 3 of Engineering monographs on earthquake criteria, structural design, and strong motion records. Earthquake Engineering Research Inst. ‏
   Google Scholar
• Oth, A., D. Bindi, S. Parolai, and D. Di Giacomo. 2011. Spectral analysis of K-NET and KiK-net data in Japan, part II: On attenuation characteristics, source spectra, and site response of borehole and surface stations. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 101 (2): 667–687‏. doi: 10.1785/0120100135.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papazoglou, A. J., and A. S. Elnashai. 1996. Analytical and field evidence of the damaging effect of vertical earthquake ground motion. Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics 25 (10): 1109–1137‏. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9845(199610)25:10<1109::AID-EQE604>3.0.CO;2-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pilz, M., and F. Cotton. 2019. Does the one-dimensional assumption hold for site response analysis? A study of seismic site responses and implication for ground motion assessment using KiK-Net strong-motion data. Earthquake Spectra 35 (2): 883–905‏. doi: 10.1193/050718EQS113M.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qin, Y., H. Tang, Q. Deng, X. Yin, and D. Wang. 2019. Regional seismic slope assessment improvements considering slope aspect and vertical ground motion. Engineering Geology 259 (4). doi: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2019.105148.
   Google Scholar
• Ramadan, F., C. Smerzini, G. Lanzano, and F. Pacor. 2021. An empirical model for the vertical‐to‐horizontal spectral ratios for Italy. Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics 50 (15): 4121–4141‏. doi: 10.1002/eqe.3548.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rathje, E. M., A. R. Kottke, and W. L. Trent. 2010. Influence of input motion and site property variabilities on seismic site response analysis. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 136 (4): 607–19. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000255.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seyhan, E., and J. P. Stewart. 2014. Semi-empirical nonlinear site amplification from NGA-West2 data and simulations. Earthquake Spectra 30 (3): 1241–56. doi: 10.1193/063013EQS181M.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi, Y., S. Y. Wang, K. Cheng, and Y. Miao. 2020. In situ characterization of nonlinear soil behavior of vertical ground motion using KiK-net data. Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering 18 (10): 4605–27. doi: 10.1007/s10518-020-00893-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart, J. P., D. M. Boore, E. Seyhan, and G. M. Atkinson. 2016. NGA-West2 equations for predicting vertical-component PGA, PGV, and 5%-damped PSA from shallow crustal earthquakes. Earthquake Spectra 32 (2): 1005–31. doi: 10.1193/072114eqs116m.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson, E. M., L. G. Baise, Y. Tanaka, and R. E. Kayen. 2012. A taxonomy of site response complexity. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 41: 32–43. doi: 10.1016/j.soildyn.2012.04.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsai, C. C., and H. W. Liu. 2017. Site response analysis of vertical ground motion in consideration of soil nonlinearity. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 102: 124–36. doi: 10.1016/j.soildyn.2017.08.024.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsai, C. C., H. W. Liu, and D. Asimaki. 2022. Predicting V p and constrained modulus reduction curve based on V s and shear modulus reduction curve in accordance with poroelastic theory. Géotechnique 1–12. doi: 10.1680/jgeot.21.00143.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vucetic, M., and R. Dobry. 1991. Effect of soil plasticity on cyclic response. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering 117 (1): 89–107. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1991)117:1(89).
   Google Scholar
• Yang, J., and X. R. Yan. 2009a. Site response to multi-directional earthquake loading: A practical procedure. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 29 (4): 710–21. doi: 10.1016/j.soildyn.2008.07.008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, J., and X. R. Yan. 2009b. Factors affecting site response to multi-directional earthquake loading. Engineering Geology 107 (3–4): 77–87. doi: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2009.04.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zolfaghari, M. R., and A. Darzi. 2019. Ground-motion models for predicting vertical components of PGA, PGV and 5%-damped spectral acceleration (0.01–10 s) in Iran. Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering 17 (7): 3615–35. doi: 10.1007/s10518-019-00623-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar