Gendered impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic: a mixed-method study of teacher stress and work-life balance

References

• Addati, L., Cattaneo, U., Esquivel, V., & Valarino, I. (2018). Care work and care jobs for the future of decent work. International Labour Organization.
   Google Scholar
• Allen, R., Jerrim, J., & Sims, S. (2020). How did the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic affect teacher wellbeing. Centre for Education Policy and Equalising Opportunities (CEPEO), 20–15.
   Google Scholar
• Alon, T., Doepke, M., Olmstead-Rumsey, J., & Tertilt, M. (2020). The impact Of COVID-19 on gender equality (No. w26947). National Bureau of economic research.
   Google Scholar
• Alves, R., Lopes, T., & Precioso, J. (2021). Teachers’ well-being in times of COVID-19 pandemic: Factors that explain professional well-being. IJERI: International Journal of Educational Research and Innovation, 15, 203–217. https://doi.org/10.46661/ijeri.5120
   Google Scholar
• Backer, D. I., & Cairns, K. (2021). Social reproduction theory revisited. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 42(7), 1086–1104. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425692.2021.1953962
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker, C. N. Peele, H., Daniels, M., Saybe, M., Whalen, K., Overstreet, S. & The New Orleans Trauma-Informed Schools Learning Collaborative. (2021). The experience of COVID-19 and its impact on teachers’ mental health, coping, and teaching. School Psychology Review, 50(4), 491–504. https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966X.2020.1855473
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The job demands-resources model: State of the art. Journal of Managerial psychology 309–328. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710733115.
   Google Scholar
• Baruch, G. K., Biener, L., & Barnett, R. C. (1987). Women and gender in research on work and family stress. American Psychologist, 42(2), 130. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.42.2.130
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bateman, N., & Ross, M. (2020). Why has COVID-19 been especially harmful for working women. Brookings Gender Equality Series, Brookings Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Bhattacharya, T. (2017). Mapping social reproduction theory. Pluto Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bianchi, S. M., Robinson, J. P., & Milke, M. A. (2006). The changing rhythms of American family life. Russell Sage Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Bothma, C. F., & Roodt, G. (2013). The validation of the turnover intention scale. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 11(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v11i1.507
   Google Scholar
• Bottiani, J. H., Duran, C. A., Pas, E. T., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2019). Teacher stress and burnout in urban middle schools: Associations with job demands, resources, and effective classroom practices. Journal of School Psychology, 77, 36–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2019.10.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burki, T. (2020). The indirect impact of COVID-19 on women. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 20(8), 904–905. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30568-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calabrese, R. L., & Anderson, R. E. (1986). The public school. Urban Education, 21(1), 30–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/004208598602100103
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carli, L. L. (2020). Women, gender equality and COVID-19. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 35(7/8), 647–655. https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-07-2020-0236
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlson, D. L., Petts, R. J., & Pepin, J. R. (2020). Men and women agree: During the COVID-19 pandemic men are doing more at home. Paid and Unpaid Care Work, 7. https://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/wlpcarework/7
   Google Scholar
• Carlson, D. L., Petts, R. J., & Pepin, J. R. (2022). Changes in US parents’ domestic labor during the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic. Sociological Inquiry, 92(3), 1217–1244. https://doi.org/10.1111/soin.12459
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative analysis. Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Chitra, A. (2020). Study on impact of occupational stress on job satisfaction of teachers during COVID-19 pandemic period. Global Development Review, 4(2), 52–62.
   Google Scholar
• Clark, S., McGrane, A., Boyle, N., Joksimovic, N., Burke, L., Rock, N., & O’Sullivan, K. (2021). “You’re a teacher you’re a mother, you’re a worker”: gender inequality during COVID-19 in ireland. Gender, Work & Organization, 28(4), 1352–1362. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12611
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coverman, S. (1989). Role overload, role conflict, and stress: Addressing consequences of multiple role demands. Social Forces, 67(4), 965–982. https://doi.org/10.2307/2579710
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Creary, S. J., & Gordon, J. R. (2016). Role conflict, role overload, and role strain. In C. L. Shehan (Ed.), Encyclopedia of family studies (pp. 1700–1705). Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Drudy, S. (2008). Gender balance/gender bias: The teaching profession and the impact of feminisation. Gender and Education, 20(4), 309–323. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540250802190156
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fauzi, I., & Khusuma, I. H. S. (2020). Teachers’ elementary school in online learning of COVID-19 pandemic conditions. Jurnal Iqra' : Kajian Ilmu Pendidikan, 5(1), 58–70. https://doi.org/10.25217/ji.v5i1.914
   Google Scholar
• Federici, S. (2019). Social reproduction theory. Radical Philosophy, 2(4), 55–57.
   Google Scholar
• Fisher, A. N., & Ryan, M. K. (2021). Gender inequalities during COVID-19. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 24(2), 237–245. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430220984248
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher, J., Languilaire, J. C., Lawthom, R., Nieuwenhuis, R., Petts, R. J., Runswick-Cole, K., & Yerkes, M. A. (2020). Community, work, and family in times of COVID-19. Community, Work & Family, 23(3), 247–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2020.1756568
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fraser, N. (2016). Capitalism's crisis of care. Dissent, 63(4), 30–37. https://doi.org/10.1353/dss.2016.0071
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gramlich, J. (2022). Two years into the pandemic, Americans inch closer to a new normal. Pew Research Center.
   Google Scholar
• Grayson, J. L., & Alvarez, H. K. (2008). School climate factors relating to teacher burnout: A mediator model. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24(5), 1349–1363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2007.06.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenglass, E. R., & Burke, R. J. (1988). Work and family precursors of burnout in teachers: Sex differences. Sex Roles, 18(3), 215–229. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00287791
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenhaus, J. H., & Powell, G. N. (2006). When work and family are allies: A theory of work-family enrichment. Academy of Management Review, 31(1), 72–92. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.19379625
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harmsen, R., Helms-Lorenz, M., Maulana, R., & van Veen, K. (2018). The relationship between beginning teachers’ stress causes, stress responses, teaching behaviour and attrition. Teachers and Teaching, 24(6), 626–643. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2018.1465404
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hauseman, C., Darazsi, S., & Kent, S. (2020). Collaboration, communication and wellness: Response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Manitoba schools. International Studies in Educational Administration, 48(2), 70–77.
   Google Scholar
• Hertz, R., Mattes, J., & Shook, A. (2021). When paid work invades the family: Single mothers in the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Family Issues, 42(9), 2019–2045. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X20961420
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hjálmsdóttir, A., & Bjarnadóttir, V. S. (2021). “I have turned into a foreman here at home”: families and work–life balance in times of COVID-19 in a gender equality paradise. Gender, Work & Organization, 28(1), 268–283. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12552
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hochschild, A., & Machung, A. (2012). The second shift: Working families and the revolution at home. Penguin.
   Google Scholar
• Holme, J., Jabbar, H., Germain, E., & Dinning, J. (2018). Rethinking teacher turnover: Longitudinal measures of instability in schools. Educational Researcher, 47(1), 62–75. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X17735813
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IBM Corp. (2020). IBM SPSS statistics for windows (Version 27.0) [Computer software]. IBM Corp.
   Google Scholar
• Kantamneni, N. (2020). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on marginalized populations in the United States: A research agenda. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 119, 103439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2020.103439
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kashen, J., Glynn, S. J., & Novello, A. (2020). How COVID-19 sent women’s workforce progress backward. Center for American Progress. https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/women/reports/2020/10/30/492582/covid-19-sent-womens-workforce-progressbackward/
   Google Scholar
• Kelchtermans, G. (2017). ‘Should I stay or should I go?’: Unpacking teacher attrition/retention as an educational issue. Teachers and Teaching, 23(8), 961–977. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2017.1379793
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, L. E., & Asbury, K. (2020). ‘Like a rug had been pulled from under you’: The impact of COVID-19 on teachers in England during the first six weeks of the UK lockdown. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(4), 1062–1083. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12381
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klapproth, F., Federkeil, L., Heinschke, F., & Jungmann, T. (2020). Teachers experiences of stress and their coping strategies during COVID - 19 induced distance teaching. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 4(4), 444–452. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.2020062805
   Google Scholar
• Klassen, R. M. (2010). Teacher stress: The mediating role of collective efficacy beliefs. The Journal of Educational Research, 103(5), 342–350. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220670903383069
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kopelman, R. E., Greenhaus, J. H., & Connolly, T. F. (1983). A model of work, family, and interrole conflict: A construct validation study. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 32(2), 198–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(83)90147-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Košir, K., Dugonik, Š, Huskić, A., Gračner, J., Kokol, Z., & Krajnc, Ž. (2020). Predictors of perceived teachers’ and school counsellors’ work stress in the transition period of online education in schools during the COVID-19 pandemic. Educational Studies, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2020.1833840
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreitner, R., & Kinicki, A. (2004). Organizational behavior (6th ed). McGraw Hill/Irwin.
   Google Scholar
• Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldaña, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook, 3rd ed. Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Mize, T. D., Kaufman, G., & Petts, R. J. (2021). Visualizing shifts in gendered parenting attitudes during COVID-19. Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, 7, 237802312110131–3. https://doi.org/10.1177/23780231211013128
   Google Scholar
• Moen, P., & Roehling, P. (2005). The career mystique: Cracks in the American dream. Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• National Women’s Law Center. (2017). Childcare: A snapshot of working mothers. https://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/A-Snapshot-of-Working-Mothers.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Naylor, C. (2001). Teacher Workload and Stress: An International Perspective on Human Costs and Systemic Failure. BCTF Research Report.
   Google Scholar
• New York State Education Department. (2019). Educator diversity report. http://www.nysed.gov/common/nysed/files/programs/educator-quality/educatordiversity-report-december-2019.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Peck, J. A. (2021). The disproportionate impact of COVID-19 on women relative to men: A conservation of resources perspective. Gender, Work & Organization, 28(S2), 484–497. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12597
   Google Scholar
• Petts, R. J., Carlson, D. L., & Pepin, J. R. (2021). A gendered pandemic: Childcare, homeschooling, and parents’ employment during COVID-19. Gender, Work & Organization, 28(S2), 515–534. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12614
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polivka, L. J. (2018). Women and the crisis of care in the United States. Generations (san Francisco, Calif ), 41(4), 29–35.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pressley, T., & Ha, C. (2021). Teaching during a pandemic: United States teachers’ self-efficacy during COVID-19. Teaching and Teacher Education, 106, 103465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2021.103465
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• R Core Team. (2021). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.R-project.org/.
   Google Scholar
• Ranji, U., Frederiksen, B., Salganicoff, A., & Long, M. (22 March 2021). Women, work, and family during COVID-19: Findings from the KFF women’s health survey. Kaiser Family Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Rapoport, R., & Rapoport, R. N. (1976). Dual-career families re-examined. Harper. & Row.
   Google Scholar
• Reich, R. B. (2013). Aftershock: The next economy and America's future. Vintage.
   Google Scholar
• Reichelt, M., Makovi, K., & Sargsyan, A. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 on gender inequality in the labor market and gender-role attitudes. European Societies, 23(1), S228–S245. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616696.2020.1823010
   Google Scholar
• Saldaña, J. (2021). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Schaufeli, W. B., & Bakker, A. B. (2004). Job demands, job resources, and their relationship with burnout and engagement: A multi-sample study. Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, 25(3), 293–315. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.248
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schieman, S., Badawy, P. J., A. Milkie, M., & Bierman, A. (2021). Work-life conflict during the COVID-19 pandemic. Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, 7, 237802312098285–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023120982856
   Google Scholar
• Schieman, S., Glavin, P., & Milkie, M. A. (2009). When work interferes with life: Work-nonwork interference and the influence of work-related demands and resources. American Sociological Review, 74(6), 966–988. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240907400606
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spadafora, N., Reid-Westoby, C., Pottruff, M., & Janus, M. (2022). Family responsibilities and mental health of kindergarten educators during the first COVID-19 pandemic lockdown in ontario, Canada. Teaching and Teacher Education, (115). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2022.103735
   Google Scholar
• Tamboukou, M. (2000). The paradox of being a woman teacher. Gender and Education, 12(4), 463–478. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540250020004108
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor, C. J. (2016). “Relational by nature”? Men and women Do Not differ in physiological response to social stressors faced by token women. American Journal of Sociology, 122(1), 49–89. https://doi.org/10.1086/686698
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thorne, B. (2004). The crisis of care. In A. C. Crouter, & A. Booth (Eds.), Work-life challenges for low-income parents and their children (pp. 165–198). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Tingley, D., Yamamoto, T., Hirose, K., Keele, L., & Imai, K. (2014). mediation:Rpackage for causal mediation analysis. Journal of Statistical Software, 59(5), 1–38. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v059.i05
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tran, V. D. (2015). Effects of gender on teachers’ perceptions of school environment, teaching efficacy, stress and job satisfaction. International Journal of Higher Education, 4(4), 147–157. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v4n4p147
   Google Scholar
• Travers, C. J., & Cooper, C. L. (1993). Mental health, job satisfaction and occupational stress among UK teachers. Work & Stress, 7(3), 203–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678379308257062
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• United States Census Bureau. (2021). Household pulse survey data tables. https://www.census.gov/programssurveys/household-pulse-survey/data.html
   Google Scholar
• Weiss, H. (2021). Social reproduction. Cambridge Encyclopedia of Anthropology.
   Google Scholar
• Wilcox, K. C., Durand, F., Lawson, H., Leo, A., Schiller, K., Khan, M., & Mola, J. A. (in press). Educators’ job dissatisfaction and school leaders’ communications during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of School Leadership.
   Google Scholar
• Wilcox, K. C., Leo, A., Khan, M., Tobin, J., Avila, J. A., Schiller, K., Durand, F., & Lawson, H. (2022). Discovering impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the education workforce: Methods and procedures report. Albany, NY: State University of New York.
   Google Scholar
• Young, M., & Schieman, S. (2018). Scaling back and finding flexibility: Gender differences in parents’ strategies to manage work–family conflict. Journal of Marriage and Family, 80(1), 99–118. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12435
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zamarro, G., & Prados, M. J. (2021). Gender differences in couples’ division of childcare, work and mental health during COVID-19. Review of Economics of the Household, 19(1), 11–40. doi:10.1007/s11150-020-09534-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar