References
- Alluri, S., A. Voskanyan, R. Sarin, M. Molloy, and G. Ciottone. 2017. “It’s a Crush… It’s a Collapse… It’s… Wait, That’s No Stampede!.” Prehospital and Disaster Medicine 32 (S1): S27–S28. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049023X17000929.
- Atwood, L. E., and A. M. Major. 2000. “Optimism, Pessimism, and Communication Behavior in Response to an Earthquake Prediction.” Public Understanding of Science 9 (4): 417–432. doi:https://doi.org/10.1088/0963-6625/9/4/305.
- Bartholomew, R. E. 2016. “The Paris Terror Attacks, Mental Health and the Spectre of Fear.” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 109 (1): 4–5. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0141076815625070.
- Bartolucci, A., C. Casareale, and J. Drury. 2021. “Cooperative and Competitive Behaviour among Passengers during the Costa Concordia Disaster.” Safety Science 134. 105055. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2020.:.
- Bauer, M., C. Blattman, J. Chytilová, J. Henrich, E. Miguel, and T. Mitts. 2016. “Can War Foster Cooperation?” Journal of Economic Perspectives 30 (3): 249–274. doi:https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.30.3.249.
- Benedictus, L. 2015. “Hajj Crush: how Crowd Disasters Happen, and How They Can Be Avoided.” The Guardian 3rd October.
- Bond, A., G. Macaskill, and V. White. 2017. “Panic at the Arndale: Screaming and in Tears, Hundreds Flee Manchester Shopping Centre After ‘Big Bang’”. Mirror, May 23. https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/manchester-arena-bomb-arndale-centre-10481402
- Bosotti, A. 2017. “‘Run and DON’T STOP’ Witness describes moment police evacuated the Natural History Museum”. Express. 7th October. https://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/863532/London-car-museum-exhibition-road-incident-today-eyewitness-news-now-video.
- Breen-Smyth, M. 2014. “Theorising the “Suspect Community”: Counterterrorism, Security Practices and the Public Imagination.” Critical Studies on Terrorism 7 (2): 223–240. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/17539153.2013.867714.
- Burkle, F. M., and E. B. HsuJr. 2011. “Ram Janki Temple: Understanding Human Stampedes.” Lancet (London, England) 377 (9760): 106–107. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60442-4.
- Cocking, C. 2013. “Crowd Flight in Response to Police Dispersal Techniques: A Momentary Lapse of Reason?” Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling 10 (2): 219–236. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/jip.1389.
- CPNI (Centre for the Protection of National Infrastructure). 2018. Marauding Terrorist Attacks: Supplementary Guidance - Preparing Personnel. https://www.cpni.gov.uk/marauding-terrorist-attacks-1
- de Almeida, M. M., and J. von Schreeb. 2019. “Human Stampedes: An Updated Review of Current Literature.” Prehospital and Disaster Medicine 34 (1): 82–88. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049023X18001073.
- Drury, J. 2018. “The Role of Social Identity Processes in Mass Emergency Behaviour: An Integrative Review.” European Review of Social Psychology 29 (1): 38–81. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2018.1471948.
- Duijm, N. 2015. “Recommendations on the Use and Design of Risk Matrices.” Safety Science 76: 21–31. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2015.02.014.
- Erlingsson, C., and P. Brysiewicz. 2013. “Orientation among Multiple Truths: An Introduction to Qualitative Research.” African Journal of Emergency Medicine 3 (2): 92–99. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afjem.2012.04.005.
- Europol. 2016. European Union terrorism situation and trend report (TE-SAT). Accessed July 20, 2016. https://www.europol.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/europol_tesat_2016.pdf
- Feeny, F. 2015. “Facebook’s New Photo Filter Lets You Show Solidarity With Paris”. Time November 14. https://time.com/4113171/paris-attacks-facebook-filter-french-flag-profile-picture/
- Fleiss, J. L. 1981. Statistical Methods for Rates and Proportions. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley.
- Greenfield, P., I. Cobain, and V. Dodd. 2017. Oxford Street Panic Began with Fight at Tube Station, Suggest Police. The Guardian. 24th November 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/nov/24/oxford-circus-police-attend-tube-incident
- Harris, T. Lord. 2016. “An Independent Review of London’s Preparedness to Respond to a Major Terrorist Incident.” https://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/londons_preparedness_to_respond_to_a_major_terrorist_incident_-_independent_review_oct_2016.pdf
- Helbing, D., I. Farkas, and T. Vicsek. 2000. “Simulating Dynamical Features of Escape Panic.” Nature 407 (6803): 487–490. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/35035023.
- Home Office. 2018. ‘Contest: The United Kingdom’s Strategy for Countering Terrorism’. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/716907/140618_CCS207_CCS0218929798-1_CONTEST_3.0_WEB.pdf
- Kinsey, M. J., S. M. V. Gwynne, E. D. Kuligowski, and M. Kinateder. 2019. “Cognitive Biases within Decision Making during Fire Evacuations.” Fire Technology 55 (2): 465–485. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-018-0708-0.
- Kobes, M., I. Helsloot, B. de Vries, J. G. Post, N. Oberij´e, and K. Groenewegen. 2010. “Way Finding during Fire Evacuation; an Analysis of Unannounced Fire Drills in a Hotel at Night.” Building and Environment 45 (3): 537–548. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2009.07.004.
- Kvamme, V. 2017. Use of Behavioral Theories for the Interpretation of Human Behavior in the Costa Concordia disaster. Sweden: Department of Fire Safety Engineering Lund University.
- Lai, F. 2020. “Tragedia di piazza San Carlo, morto un altro dei feriti: è il terzo.” La Stampa, February 18. https://www.lastampa.it/torino/2020/02/18/news/tragedia-di-piazza-san-carlo-morto-un-altro-dei-feriti-e-il-terzo-1.38483935.
- Landis, J. R., and G. G. Koch. 1977. “The Measurement of Observer Agreement for Categorical Data.” Biometrics 33 (1): 159–174. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/2529310. JSTOR 2529310. PMID 843571.
- Littlejohn, R. 2017. “An A-Bomb in Wardour Street: Don’t Panic! Richard Littlejohn asks Why People Fleeing Oxford Circus Found Time to Update their Social Media.” The Daily Mail, November 27. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/debate/article-5123255/An-bomb-Wardour-Street-Dont-Panic.html.
- Loewenstein, G., and J. Mather. 1990. “Dynamic Processes in Risk Perception.” Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 3 (2): 155–175. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00056370. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2002.tb00826.x.
- NaCTSO (National Counter Terrorism Security Office). 2015. Stay Safe. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/stay-safe-film.
- Ngai, K. M., F. M. Burkle, A. Hsu, and E. B. Hsu. 2009. “Human Stampedes: A Systematic Review of Historical and Peer-Reviewed Sources.” Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness 3 (4): 191–195. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/DMP.0b013e3181c5b494.
- Nickels, H. C., L. Thomas, M. J. Hickman, and S. Silvestri. 2012. “Constructing Suspect Communities and Britishness: Mapping British Press Coverage of Irish and Muslim Communities 1974–2007.” European Journal of Communication 27 (2): 135–151. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323112445604.
- O’Callaghan, L. 2017. ‘Is It Safe to Travel to London? Latest Update After Incident Near Natural History Museum’. Express 7th October 2017. https://www.express.co.uk/travel/articles/863566/london-latest-travel-advice-update-car-crash-terror-fears
- Page, M. J., J. E. McKenzie, P. M. Bossuyt, I. Boutron, T. C. Hoffmann, C. D. Mulrow, L. Shamseer, et al. 2021. “The PRISMA 2020 Statement: An Updated Guideline for Reporting Systematic Reviews.” BMJ (Clinical Research ed.) 372: n71. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71.
- Pearce, J. M., L. Lindekilde, D. Parker, and M. B. Rogers. 2019. “Communicating with the Public about Marauding Terrorist Firearms Attacks: Results from a Survey Experiment on Factors Influencing Intention to "Run, Hide, Tell" in the United Kingdom and Denmark.” Risk Analysis: An Official Publication of the Society for Risk Analysis 39 (8): 1675–1694. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.13301.
- Perring, R. 2017. “NOTHING happened! Piers Morgan ridicules Olly Murs for ‘stirring panic’ over Oxford Circus.” The Express, November 24. https://www.express.co.uk/celebrity-news/884088/Oxford-circus-station-terror-Piers-Morgan-Olly-Murs-Twitter-row-london.
- Philpot, R., and M. Levine. 2022. “Evacuation Behavior in a Subway Train Emergency: A Video-Based Analysis.” Environment and Behavior 54 (2): 383–411. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/00139165211031193.
- Police Service of Northern Ireland. 2012. “Freedom of Information Request” https://www.psni.police.uk/globalassets/advice–information/our-publications/disclosure-logs/2012/crime/hoax_bomb_alerts.pdf.
- Prati, G., V. Catufi, and L. Pietrantoni. 2012. “Emotional and Behavioural Reactions to Tremors of the Umbria-Marche Earthquake.” Disasters 36 (3): 439–451. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7717.2011.01264.x.
- Proulx, G., and J. Sime. 1991. “To Prevent “Panic” in an Underground Emergency: Why Not Tell People the Truth?” Fire Safety Science 3: 843–852. doi:https://doi.org/10.3801/IAFSS.FSS.3-843.
- Quarantelli, E. 2001. “The Sociology of Panic.” International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences. 11020–11023. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/01867-2.
- Reynolds and Pilditch. 2017. “Black Friday Stampede as Shoppers Flee in Gun Panic.” The Express, November 25.
- Rivas, C. 2012. “Coding and Analysing Qualitative Data.” In Researching Society and Culture, edited by C. Seale, 3rd ed, 366–392. London: Sage Publications.
- Robson, S. 2019a. “‘I Still Have the Screams in My Mind’: Arndale Shoppers Describe Mass Panic Caused by Fireworks.” Manchester Evening News November 27. https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/manchester-arndale-fireworks-police-panic-17327597.
- Robson, S. 2019b. “Manchester Arndale Stabbing: Police Declared Operation PLATO ‘Marauding Terror Attack’ Response.” Manchester Evening News 11th October 2019. https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/manchester-arndale-stabbing-police-declared-17071248.
- Roman, N., M. F. Alkazemi, and M. C. Stewart. 2020. “Tweeting about Terror: A World Systems Theory Approach to Comparing International Newspaper Coverage Online.” International Communication Gazette 82 (6): 507–525. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048519825993.
- Salamati, P., and V. Rahimi-Movaghar. 2016. “Hajj Stampede in Mina, 2015: Need for Intervention.” Archives of Trauma Research 5 (2): e36308. doi:https://doi.org/10.5812/atr.36308.
- Shirado, H., F. W. Crawford, and N. A. Christakis. 2020. “Collective Communication and Behaviour in Response to Uncertain ‘Danger’ in Network Experiments.” Proceedings. Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences 476 (2237): 20190685. doi:https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.2019.0685.
- Shiwakoti, N., H. Wang, H. Jiang, and L. Wang. 2020. “A ‘Role-Rule’ Model to Examine Passengers’ Likely Behaviour and Their Perceived Ability to Evacuate Safely from Airport in an Emergency Evacuation.” Safety Science 124: 104584. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2019.104584.
- Sian, K., I. Law, and S. Sayyid. 2012. The Media and Muslims in the UK. Centre for Ethnicity and Racism Studies, University of Leeds. https://www.ces.uc.pt/projectos/tolerace/media/Working%20paper%205/The%20Media%20and%20Muslims%20in%20the%20UK.pdf
- Simpson, F. 2017. “Terror Scare Sparks Mass Panic on London’s Busiest Shopping Street as False Alarm Sees Armed Police Swoop on Oxford Street.” Evening Standard November 24. https://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/oxford-circus-incident-latest-live-police-swoop-on-central-london-amid-reports-of-gunfire-a3701421.html.
- Slovic, P., B. Fischhoff, and S. Lichtenstein. 1981. “Perceived Risk: Psychological Factors and Social Implications.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series A—Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences 376 (1764): 17–34.
- Spears, R. 2010. “Group Rationale, Collective Sense: Beyond Intergroup bias.” The British Journal of Social Psychology 49 (Pt 1): 1–20. doi:https://doi.org/10.1348/014466609X481308.
- START (National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism). 2019. The Global Terrorism Database (GTD) University of Maryland. [Data file]. https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd.
- Sultan, K. 2016. “Linking Islam with terrorism: A review of the media framing since 9/11.” Global Media Journal: Pakistan Edition 9 (2): 1–10.
- Taylor, M. 2011. Anders Behring Breivik Had Links to Far-Right EDL, Says Anti-Racism Group. The Guardian 26th July https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/26/anders-behring-breivik-edl-searchlight.
- Tierney, K. J., M. K. Lindell, and R. W. Perry. 2001. Facing the Unexpected: Disaster Preparedness and Response in the United States. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press.
- van der Wal, C. N., M. A. Robinson, W. Bruine de Bruin, and S. Gwynne. 2021. “Evacuation Behaviors and Emergency Communications: An Analysis of Real-World Incident Videos.” Safety Science 136: 105121. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2020.105121.
- Wessely, S. 2017. President’s update: December 2017. Royal Society of Medicine. https://www.rsm.ac.uk/latest-news/2017/president-s-update-december-2017/.
- Wieringa, S. H. P. 2015. “Planning Safe Pedestrian Mass Events: Proposing a Framework for Mitigating Risks of Crowd Disasters at Mass Events in the Public Urban Space.” MSc diss., Delft University of Technology.
- Wildavsky, A., and K. Dake. 1990. “Theories of Risk Perception: Who Fears What and Why?” Daedalus 119 (4): 41–60.
- Williamson, H. 2019. “Pride and Prejudice: Exploring How Identity Processes Shape Public Attitudes towards Australian Counter-Terrorism Measures.” Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology 52 (4): 558–577. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0004865819846944.
- Wormwood, J. B., S. K. Lynn, L. F. Barrett, and K. S. Quigley. 2016. “Threat Perception after the Boston Marathon Bombings: The Effects of Personal Relevance and Conceptual Framing.” Cognition & Emotion 30 (3): 539–549.