State management of bilingualism: a comparative analysis of two educational language policies in Japan

References

• Baker, Colin. 2011. Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. 5th ed. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
   Google Scholar
• Barakos, Elisabeth, and J. W. Unger. 2016. Discursive Approaches to Language Policy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Bauman, Richard, and Charles L. Briggs. 1990. “Poetics and Performance as Critical Perspectives on Language and Social Life.” Annual Review of Anthropology 19: 59–88. doi: 10.1146/annurev.an.19.100190.000423
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blommaert, Jan. 1999. Language Ideological Debates. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
   Google Scholar
• Castro-Vazquez, Genaro. 2011. “Jumping Out of Enclosures: Ethnicity, Gender, Education and Language among Latin Americans in Japan.” Ethnicities 11 (2): 218–244. doi: 10.1177/1468796811398835
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CCA (Council of Cultural Affairs [Bunka Shingi Kai Toshin]). February 3, H16/2004. Concerning the Kokugo-ability Required in the Contemporary and Future Eras: Response to the Consultation of the Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology [korekara no jidai ni motomerareru kokugo ryoku ni tsuite (Bunka shingi kai toshin)]. Accessed February 20, 2015. http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/bunka/toushin/04020301.htm.
   Google Scholar
• CNL (Council of National Language [Kokugo Shingi Kai Kengi]). June 28, S47/1972. Concerning the Promotion of Kokugo Education: A Proposal [kokugo no kyoiku no shinko ni tsuite (Kengi)]. Accessed February 20, 2015. http://www.bunka.go.jp/kokugo_nihongo/joho/kakuki/10/tosin02/01.html.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, Andrew D., and Merrill Swain. 1976. “Bilingual Education: The “Immersion” Model in the North American Context.” TESOL Quarterly 10: 45–53. doi: 10.2307/3585938
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cummins, Jim. 2000. Language, Power and Pedagogy: Bilingual Children in the Crossfire. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
   Google Scholar
• Cummins, Jim. 2001. An Introductory Reader to the Writings of Jim Cummins. Edited by C. Baker and N. H. Hornberger. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
   Google Scholar
• Cummins, Jim. [1979] 2001. “Linguistic Interdependence and Educational Development of Bilingual Children. Review of Educational Research 49: 222–251.” Reprinted in An Introductory Reader to the Writings of Jim Cummins, edited by Colin Baker and Nancy Hornberger, 63–95. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
   Google Scholar
• Cummins, Jim. [1984] 2001. “Learning Difficulties in ‘Immersion’ Programmes.” Chapter 7 of Bilingualism and Social Education: Issues in Assessment and Pedagogy. Reprinted in An Introductory Reader to the Writings of Jim Cummins, edited by C. Baker and N. Hornberger, 148–174. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
   Google Scholar
• de Mejía, Anne-Marie. 2002. Power, Prestige and Bilingualism: International Perspectives on Elite Bilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
   Google Scholar
• Fairclough, Norman. 1992. “Intertextuality in Critical Discourse Analysis.” Linguistics and Education 4: 269–293. doi: 10.1016/0898-5898(92)90004-G
   Google Scholar
• Gal, Susan, and Kathryn Woolard. 2001. “Constructing Languages and Publics. Authority and Representation.” In Languages and Publics: The Making of Authority, edited by Susan Gal and Kathryn Woolard, 1–12. Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Gee, James Paul. 2011. How to Do Discourse Analysis: A Toolkit. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Goto-Butler, Yuko. 2007. “Foreign Language Education at Elementary Schools in Japan: Searching for Solutions Amidst Growing Diversification.” Current Issues in Language Planning 8 (2): 129–147. doi: 10.2167/cilp115.0
   Google Scholar
• Goto-Butler, Yuko, and M. Iino. 2005. “Current Japanese Reforms in English Language Education: The 2003 ‘Action Plan.’” Language Policy 4 (1): 25–45. doi: 10.1007/s10993-004-6563-5
   Google Scholar
• Gottlieb, N. 2012. Language Policy in Japan: The Challenges of Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hall, S. 1982. “The Rediscovery of ‘Ideology’: Return of the Repressed in Media Studies.” In Culture, Society, and the Media, edited by M. Gurevitch, T. Bennett, J. Curran, and J. Woollacott, 52–86. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Hamalainen, Juha. 2014. “Comparative Research in Social Work: Methodological Considerations Using the ‘Diachronic-Synchronic’ Distinction in Linguistics.” European Journal of Social Work 17 (2): 192–205. doi: 10.1080/13691457.2013.777333
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helot, C. 2003. “Language Policy and the Ideology of Bilingual Education in France.” Language Policy 2: 255–277. doi: 10.1023/A:1027316632721
   Google Scholar
• Hirabayashi, Ryo, Akemi Kikumura-Yano, and James A. Hirabayashi. 2002. New Worlds, New Lives: Globalization and People of Japanese Descent in the Americas and from Latin America in Japan. Redwood City, CA: Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hirano-Hubbard, Maki. 2010. “Translator’s Introduction.” In The Ideology of Kokugo: Language Awareness in Modern Japan, edited by Lee Yeounsuk, ix–xviii. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hult, Francis M. 2004. “Planning for Multilingualism and Minority Language Rights in Sweden.” Language Policy 3: 181–201. doi: 10.1023/B:LPOL.0000036182.40797.23
   Google Scholar
• Hult, Francis M. 2010. “Analysis of Language Policy Discourses Across the Scales of Space and Time.” International Journal of Sociology of Language 202: 7–24.
   Google Scholar
• Hult, Francis M. 2014. “How Does Policy Influence Language in Education?” Chap. 9 in Language in Education: Social Implications, edited by R. E. Silver and S. M. Lwin, 159–175. London: Bloomsbury.
   Google Scholar
• Hult, F. M., and N. H. Hornberger. 2016. “Re-visiting Orientations to Language Planning: Problem, Right, and Resource.” Bilingual Review/Louisiana Revista Bilingüe 33: 30–49.
   Google Scholar
• Hult, Francis M., and Sari Pietikäinen. 2014. “Shaping Discourses of Multilingualism Through a Language Ideological Debate: The Case of Swedish in Finland.” Journal of Language and Politics 13 (1): 1–20. doi: 10.1075/jlp.13.1.01hul
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ikegami, Makiko. 1994. “Chugoku kikoku seito ni taisuru nihongo kyoiku no yakuwari to kadai: Daini gengo kyoiku to shite no nihongo kyoiku no kanten kara [Role and Issues in Japanese Language Education for ‘Students Returning from China’: From the Perspective of Japanese as a Second Language Education].” Journal of Japanese Language Teaching 83: 16–28.
   Google Scholar
• Ikegami, Makiko. 2005. “Issues of Education for the Returning and Immigrant Children and Students [kikoku nyukoku jido seito no kyoiku mondai].” In Cultural Understanding and Language Education [bunka no rikai to gengo no kyoiku], edited by H. Mizushima, 155–175. Tokyo: Three A Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Irvine, Judith, and Susan Gal. 2000. “Language Ideology and Linguistic Differentiation.” In Regimes of Language: Ideologies, Polities and Identities, edited by Paul Kroskrity, 35–84. Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, David C. 2015. “Intertextuality and Language Policy.” In Research Methods in Language Policy and Planning: A Practical Guide, edited by F. M. Hult and D. Johnson, 166–180. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Kanno, Yasuko. 2008. Language and Education in Japan: Unequal Access to Bilingualism. London: Palgrave/Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Kawai, Yuko. 2007. “Japanese Nationalism and the Global Spread of English: An Analysis of Japanese Governmental and Public Discourses on English.” Language and Intercultural Communication 7 (1): 37–55. doi: 10.2167/laic174.0
   Google Scholar
• Kawai, Yuko. 2009. “Neoliberalism, Nationalism, and Intercultural Communication: A Critical Analysis of a Japan’s Neoliberal Nationalism Discourse under Globalization.” Journal of International and Intercultural Communication 2 (1): 16–43. doi: 10.1080/17513050802567049
   Google Scholar
• Kawaji, Yuka. 2011. Japanese Language Teaching and War [Nihongo kyoiku to senso]. Tokyo: Shinyosha.
   Google Scholar
• Kobayashi, E. 1993. “Daini gengo to shite no nihongo kyoiku no kadai [Issues in Japanese as a Second Language Education].” Bulletin of Settlement Promotion Centre for War-Displaced Japanese Returning from China 1: 1–32.
   Google Scholar
• Kubota, Ryuko. 2015. Groobaru shakai to gengo kyoiku: Kuritykaru na shiten kara [ Language Education in an Era of Globalization: Critical Perspectives]. Tokyo: Kuroshio Shuppan.
   Google Scholar
• Kyogoku, Okikazu. 1993. Kokugotowa nanika [ What Is Kokugo?]. Tokyo: Toensha.
   Google Scholar
• Lambert, Wallace E. 1973. “Culture and Language as Factors in Learning and Education.” Paper presented at the Annual Learning Symposium on “Cultural Factors in Learning” (5th, Western Washington State College, Bellingham, Washington, November 1973) and at the Annual Convention of the Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (Denver, Colorado, March 1974).
   Google Scholar
• Lee, Yeounsuk. [1996] 2010. Kokugo to iu shiso: Kindai nihon no gengo ninshiki [ The Ideology of Kokugo: Language Awareness in Modern Japan]. Translated by Maki Hirano-Hubbard. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press [Original published in Tokyo, Japan by Iwanami Shoten].
   Google Scholar
• Lemke, Jay. 1992. “Intertextuality and Educational Research.” Linguistics and Education 4: 257–267. doi: 10.1016/0898-5898(92)90003-F
   Google Scholar
• Mashiko, Hidenori. 1997. Ideorogii to shite no ‘nihon’: ‘kokugo’ ‘nihonshi’ no chishiki shakai gaku [ Japan as an Ideology: Sociology of Knowledge of ‘Kokugo’ and ‘Japanese History’]. Tokyo: Sangensha.
   Google Scholar
• May, Stephen. 2011. “The Disciplinary Constraints of SLA and TESOL: Additive Bilingualism and Second Language Acquisition, Teaching and Learning.” Linguistics and Education 22: 233–247. doi: 10.1016/j.linged.2011.02.001
   Google Scholar
• Mehan, Hugo. 1996. “The Construction of an LD Student: A Case Study in the Politics of Representation.” In Natural Histories of Discourse, edited by M. Silverstein and G. Urban, 253–276. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan). 2001. Gakko kyoiku ni okeru JSL karikyuramu no kaihatsu ni tsuite (2001/04/13) [Regarding the Development of the JSL Curriculum in School Education (2001/04/13)]. Accessed June 22, 2014. http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/clarinet/003/001/008/020.htm.
   Google Scholar
• MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan). 2003a. ‘Eigo ga tsukaeru nihonjin’ no ikusei no tameno kodo keikaku [Action Plan to Cultivate ‘Japanese with English Abilities’]. Accessed February 27, 2015. http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/chukyo/chukyo3/004/siryo/04031601/005.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan). 2003b. Regarding the Establishment of an Action Plan to Cultivate ‘Japanese with English Abilities.’ Accessed January 15, 2005. www.mext.go.jp/english/topics/03072801.htm. (As of March 20, 2015, this English version is no longer available at this official link of MEXT, but the same information is still available at the following address. Accessed March 20, 2015. http://www.gifu-net.ed.jp/kyoka/eigo/CommunicativeEnglish/Regarding%20the%20Establishment%20of%20an%20Action%20Plan%20to%20Cultivate%20%A1%C8Japanese%20with%20English%20Abilities%A1%C9.htm.
   Google Scholar
• MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan). 2004. Gakko kyoiku ni okeru JSL karikyuramu (chugakko hen) no kaihatsu jisshi yoko (2004/04/13) [Summary of the Curriculum Development Processes of the JSL Curriculum in School Education (Junior High School Level, as of 2004/04/13)]. Accessed 22 June 2014. http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/clarinet/003/001/011/003.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan). 2006. Gakko kyoiku ni okeru JSL karikyuramu (chugakko hen) no kaihatsu jisshi yoko (2006/04/12) [Summary of the Curriculum Development Processes of the JSL Curriculum in School Education (Junior High School Level, as of 2006/04/12)]. Accessed June 22, 2014. http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/clarinet/003/001/011/003.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan). n.d. Gakko kyoiku ni okeru JSL karikyuramu no kaihatsu ni tsuite (saishu hokoku, shogakko hen) [Concerning the Development of the JSL Curriculum in School Education (Final Report, Elementary School Level)]. Accessed June 22, 2014. http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/clarinet/003/001/008.htm.
   Google Scholar
• MHLW (Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare). n.d. The Present Situation of the Japanese Remaining in China after the War (As of May 31, 2014). Accessed October 1, 2014. http://www.mhlw.go.jp/bunya/engo/seido02/toukei.html.
   Google Scholar
• MoFA (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan). 2009. Refugee Issues and Japan III: Acceptance of Refugees in Japan. Accessed October 1, 2014. http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/gaiko/nanmin/main3.html.
   Google Scholar
• Mortimer, Katherine, and Stanton Wortham. 2015. “Analyzing Language Policy and Social Identification Across Heterogeneous Scales.” Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 35: 160–172. doi: 10.1017/S0267190514000269
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Motobayashi, Kyoko. 2006. “Ideological Orientations Towards Different Forms of Bilingualism: An Analysis of Press Release Documents About Language Policies in Japan.” Unpublished Master’s thesis, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.
   Google Scholar
• Motobayashi, Kyoko. 2016. “Semiotic Consequences of Inclusion: The Entextualization of JSL-nihongo Concept in the Japanese Educational Policy.” Paper presented in a panel on “Unexpected Tensions, Accidental Impacts: Engaging the Iconic,” organized by Judith Pine and Jocelyn Ahlers. Annual Meeting of American Anthropological Association, November 19.
   Google Scholar
• Nomura, Toshio. 2006. Kokugo seisaku no sengoshi [ Post-war History of Kokugo Policies]. Tokyo: Taishukan Shoten.
   Google Scholar
• Nuibe, Yoshinori. 1991. Nihongo kyoiku gaku nyumon [ Introduction to the Study of Nihongo-Japanese Education]. Tokyo: Sotakusha.
   Google Scholar
• Quackenbush-Chinen, Hiroko. 2005. “Instruction of Letters [moji no shido ho].” In Support for Language Learning [gengo gakusyu no shien], edited by Isao Mizumachi, 113–132. Tokyo: Three A Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Romaine, Susan. 1995. Bilingualism. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Sakakura, Atsushi. 1985. “Nihonjin no nihongo [ Japanese Language of the Japanese People].” In Uchikara mita nihongo, Soto kara mita nihongo [ Internal and External Perspectives on Japanese Language], edited by Kokugo Gakkai, 47–79. Tokyo: Musashino Shoin.
   Google Scholar
• Schiffman, Harold F. 1996. Linguistic Culture and Language Policy. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Seidlhofer, B., A. Breiteneder, and M.-L. Pitzl. 2006. “English as a Lingua Franca in Europe: Challenges for Applied Linguistics.” Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 26: 3–34. doi: 10.1017/S026719050600002X
   Google Scholar
• Shapiro, Michael. 1987. The Politics of Representation. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
   Google Scholar
• Spolsky, Barnard. 2009. Language Management. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Spolsky, Barnard. 2012. “What Is Language Policy?” Chap. 1 in The Cambridge Handbook of Language Policy, edited by B. Spolsky, 3–15. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Stevenson, P., J. Carl, and L. Schanze. 2007. The German Language and the Future of Europe: Ideologies, Policies and Practices. Accessed October 5, 2008. http://www.glipp.soton.ac.uk/.
   Google Scholar
• Stroud, Christopher. 2004. “Rinkeby Swedish and Semilingualism in Language Ideological Debates: A Bourdieuean Perspective.” Journal of Sociolinguistics 8 (2): 196–214. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9841.2004.00258.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tai, Eika. 1999. “Kokugo and Colonial Education in Taiwan.” Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique 7 (2): 503–540. doi: 10.1215/10679847-7-2-503
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsuda, Takeyuki Gaku. 2001. “From Ethnic Affinity to Alienation in the Global Ecumene: The Encounter between the Japanese and Japanese-Brazilian Return Migrants.” Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies 10 (1): 53–91. doi: 10.1353/dsp.2011.0047
   Google Scholar
• Wright, Sue. 2006. “French as a Lingua Franca.” Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 26: 35–60. doi: 10.1017/S0267190506000031
   Google Scholar
• Yasuda, Toshiaki. 1997. Teikoku nihon no gengo hensei [ Language Management of Imperial Japan]. Yokohama: Seori Shobo.
   Google Scholar
• Yasuda, Toshiaki. 2000. Kindai nihon gengoshi saikou: Teikokuka suru nihongo to gengomondai [ Modern History of Language Revisited: Imperialized ‘Nihongo’ and ‘Language Issues’]. Tokyo: Sangensha.
   Google Scholar