‘They have embraced a different behaviour’: transactional sex and family dynamics in eastern Congo's conflict

References

• Agiresaasi, A.2011. War in Northern Uganda Pushed Girls into Commercial Sex Trade, Many Struggle to Exit. Global Press Institute. http://dev.globalpressinstitute.org/global-news/africa/uganda/war-northern-uganda-pushed-girls-commercial-sex-trade-many-struggle-exit.
   Google Scholar
• Albutt, K., J.Kelly, J.Kabanga, and M.VanRooyen. 2013. Stigmatization and Rejection of Survivors of Sexual Violence in Eastern DRC. Unpublished manuscriptHarvard School of Public Health.
   Google Scholar
• Ankomah, A.1998. “Condom Use in Sexual Exchange Relationships Among Young Single Adults in Ghana.” AIDS Education and Prevention10 (4): 303–316. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9721383.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barker, G., and C.Ricardo. 2005. Young Men and the Construction of Masculinity in Sub-Saharan Africa: Implications for HIV/AIDS, Conflict, and Violence. Washington, DC: World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Bartels, S., M.VanRooyen, J.Leaning, J.Scott, and J.Kelly. 2010. ‘Now, the World is Without Me’: An Investigation of Sexual Violence in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Humanitarian Initiative.
   Google Scholar
• Betancourt, T. S., L.Speelman, G.Onyango, and P.Bolton. 2009. “A Qualitative Study of Mental Health Problems Among Children Displaced by War in Northern Uganda.” Transcultural Psychiatry46 (2): 238–256.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bosmans, M.2007. “Challenges in Aid to Rape Victims: The Case of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.” Essex Human Rights Review4 (1): 1–12.
   Google Scholar
• Burds, J.2009. “Sexual Violence in Europe in World War II, 1939–1945.” Politics & Society37 (1): 35–73.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buvinić, M., U.Casabonne, M. D.Gupta, and P.Verwimp. 2013. “Violent Conflict and Gender Inequality: An Overview.” The World Bank Research Observer28 (1): 110–138.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clifford, C., Stop Modern Slavery (SMS), and The Foreign Policy Association (FPA). 2008. “Rape as a Weapon of War and it's Long-term Effects on Victims and Society.” In 7th Global Conference Violence and the Contexts of Hostility.
   Google Scholar
• Csete, J., and J.Kippenberg. 2002. The War Within the War: Sexual Violence Against Women and Girls in Eastern Congo. Human Rights Watch. http://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/drc/Congo0602.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Dewey, S.2012. “Rethinking Survival Sex And Trafficking in Conflict and Post- Conflict Zoons: The Case of Bosnia-Herzegovinia.” Waguda10 (Spring): 15–31. http://appweb.cortland.edu/ojs/index.php/Wagadu/article/viewFile/688/956.
   Google Scholar
• Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2009. Bridging the Gap: FAO's Programme for Gender Equality in Agriculture and Rural Development. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i1243e/.
   Google Scholar
• Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2014. Democratic Republic of Congo. http://www.fao.org/gender/landrights/home/report/en//#bib_country_id = 72.
   Google Scholar
• FAO, IFAD, and ILO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, International Fund for Agricultural Development, and International Labour Office). 2010. Gender Dimensions of Agricultural and Rural Employment: Differentiated Pathways Out of Poverty. http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/–-ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_150558.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Gilliard, N.2011. “Peacekeepers or Perpetrators? An Analysis of Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (SEA) by UN Personnel in the Democratic Republic of Congo.” Mapping Politics3 (1)
   Google Scholar
• Glass, N., P.Ramazani, M.Tosha, M.Mpanano, and M.Cinyabuguma. 2012. “A Congolese–US Participatory Action Research Partnership to Rebuild the Lives of Rape Survivors and their Families in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.” Global Public Health7 (2): 184–195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gorgen, R., M. L.Yansané, M.Marx, and D.Millimounou. 1998. “Sexual Behavior and Attitudes Among Unmarried Urban Youths in Guinea.” International Family Planning Perspectives24 (2): 65–71.
   Google Scholar
• Gregson, S., C. A.Nyamukapa, G. P.Garnett, P. R.Mason, T.Zhuwau, M.Caraël, S. K.Chandiwana, and R. M.Anderson. 2002. “Sexual Mixing Patterns and Sex-Differentials in Teenage Exposure to HIV Infection in Rural Zimbabwe.” The Lancet359 (9321): 1896–1903.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagen, K., and S.Yohani. 2010. “The Nature and Psychosocial Consequences of War Rape for Individuals and Communities.” International Journal of Psychological Studies2 (2): 14–25. http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ijps/article/viewFile/5755/6360.
   Google Scholar
• Hankins, C. A., S. R.Friedman, T.Zafar, and S. A.Strathdee. 2002. “Transmission and Prevention of HIV and Sexually Transmitted Infections in War Settings: Implications for Current and Future Armed Conflicts.” AIDS16 (17): 2245–2252.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Human Rights Watch. 2012. ‘I Had to Run Away’: The Imprisonment of Women and Girls for ‘Moral Crimes’ in Afghanistan, March. http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/afghanistan0312webwcover_0.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Human Rights Watch. 2014. World Report 2014: Democratic Republic of Congo. http://www.hrw.org/world-report/2014/country-chapters/democratic-republic-congo.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, K., J.Scott, B.Rughita, M.Kisielewski, J.Asher, R.Ong, and L.Lawry. 2010. “Association of Sexual Violence and Human Rights Violations with Physical and Mental Health in Territories of the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo.” JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association304 (5): 553–562.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly, J. T., T. S.Betancourt, D.Mukwege, R.Lipton, and M. J.VanRooyen. 2011. “Experiences of Female Survivors of Sexual Violence in Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo: A Mixed-Methods Study.” Conflict and Health5 (25): 1–8.
   Google Scholar
• Kelly, J., M.VanRooyen, J.Kabanga, B.Maclin, and C.Mullen. 2011. Hope for the Future Again: Tracing the Effects of Sexual Violence and Conflict on Families and Communities in Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Humanitarian Initiative.
   Google Scholar
• Longfield, K., A.Glick, M.Waithaka, and J.Berman. 2002. Cross-Generational Relationships in Kenya: Couples' Motivations, Risk Perception for STIs/HIV and Condom Use. Washington, DC: Population Services International (PSI). http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADG452.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Lwambo, D.2013. “‘Before the War, I was a Man’: Men and Masculinities in the Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.” Gender & Development21 (21): 47–66.
   Google Scholar
• MacGaffey, J.1991. “Overview.” In The Real Economy of Zaire: The Contribution of Smuggling & Other Unofficial Activities to National Wealth, edited by J.MacGaffey, 5–6. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
   Google Scholar
• Maedl, A.2011. “Rape as Weapon of War in the Eastern DRC?: The Victims' Perspective.” Human Rights Quarterly33 (1): 128–147.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muhwezi, W. W., E.Kinyanda, M.Mungherera, P.Onyango, E.Ngabirano, J.Muron, J.Kagugube, and R.Kajungu. 2011. “Vulnerability to High Risk Sexual Behaviour (HRSB) Following Exposure to War Trauma as Seen in Post-Conflict Communities in Eastern Uganda: A Qualitative Study.” Conflict and Health5 (1): 22.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nyanzi, S., R.Pool, and J.Kinsman. 2001. “The Negotiation of Sexual Relationships Among School Pupils in South-Western Uganda.” AIDS Care13 (1): 83–98.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oxfam Programme Insights. 2012. Protecting Communities in the DRC: Understanding Gender Dynamics and Empowering Women and Men. Oxford: Oxfam GB.
   Google Scholar
• Puechguirbal, N.2003. “Women and War in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society28 (4): 1271–1281.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qouta, S., R.-L.Punamäki, and E. E.Sarraj. 2008. “Child Development and Family Mental Health in War and Military Violence: The Palestinian Experience.” International Journal of Behavioral Development32 (4): 310–321.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ray, S., and L.Heller. 2009. Peril or Protection: A Link Between Livelihoods and Gender-based Violence in Displacement Settings. New York: Women's Refugee Commission.
   Google Scholar
• RFDA, RFDP, and IA (Réseau des Femmes pour un Développement Associatif, Réseau des Femmes pour la Défense des Droits et la Paix, and International Alert). 2005. Women's Bodies as a Battleground: Sexual Violence Against Women and Girls During the War in the Democratic Republic of Congo: South Kivu (1996–2003). http://www.international-alert.org/sites/default/files/publications/women's-bodies-as-a-english.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Sarhan, A.2007. “Sex for Survival.” Al Jazeera. August 16. http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2007/08/2008525183626816642.html.
   Google Scholar
• Silberschmidt, M., and V.Rasch. 2001. “Adolescent Girls, Illegal Abortions and ‘Sugar-Daddies’ in Dar es Salaam: Vulnerable Victims and Active Social Agents.” Social Science & Medicine52 (12): 1815–1826. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11352408.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skjelsbaek, I.2006. “Victim and Survivor: Narrated Social Identities of Women Who Experienced Rape During the War in Bosnia-Herzegovina.” Feminism & Psychology16 (4): 373–403.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steiner, B., M. T.Benner, E.Sondorp, K. P.Schmitz, U.Mesmer, and S.Rosenberger. 2009. “Sexual Violence in the Protracted Conflict of DRC Programming for Rape Survivors in South Kivu.” Conflict and Health3 (3): 1–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Summerfield, D.2000. “Conflict and Health: War and Mental Health: A Brief Overview.” BMJ: British Medical Journal321 (7255): 232–235.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner, S.1999. Angry Young Men in Camps: Gender, Age and Class Relations Among Burundian Refugees in Tanzania. Geneva: UNHCR.
   Google Scholar
• Ungor, U.Ü.2012. “Orphans, Converts, and Prostitutes: Social Consequences of War and Persecution in the Ottoman Empire, 1914–1923.” War in History19 (2): 173–192.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2013. Human Development Report 2013. New York, NY. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR2013_EN_Summary.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). 2011. Driven by Desperation: Transactional Sex as a Survival Strategy in Port-au-Prince IDP Camps. Port-au-Prince, Haiti. http://www.urd.org/IMG/pdf/SGBV-UNHCR-report2_FINAL.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Verhoeve, A.2004. “Conflict and the Urban Space: The Socio-Economic Impact of Conflict on the City of Goma.” In Conflict and Social Transformation in Eastern DR Congo, edited by K.Vlassenroot and T.Raeymakers, 103–122. Gent: Academia Press.
   Google Scholar
• Vinck, P., P.Pham, S.Baldo, and R.Shigekane. 2008. Living with Fear: A Population-Based Survey on Attitudes about Peace, Justice, and Social Reconstruction in Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Berkeley: Human Rights Center. http://www.law.berkeley.edu/files/HRC/Publications_Living-With-Fear_08-2008.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• WCRWC (Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children). 2007. Build the Peace: Creating Economic Opportunities in Post-Conflict Liberia. New York: WCRWC.
   Google Scholar
• WHO (World Health Organization). 2012. Violence Against Women: Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Against Women. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs239/en/.
   Google Scholar