The disinformation landscape and the lockdown of social platforms

References

• Apuzzo, M., & Santariano, A. (2019, 12 May 2019). Russia is Targetting Europe's Elections. So Are Far-Right Copycats. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/12/world/europe/russian-propaganda-influence-campaign-european-elections-far-right.html
   Google Scholar
• Babbie, E. R. (2010). The practice of social research (12th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage.
   Google Scholar
• Bastos, M. T., & Mercea, D. (2018). The public accountability of social platforms: Lessons from a study on bots and trolls in the Brexit campaign. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. doi:10.1098/rsta.2018.0003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bastos, M. T., & Mercea, D. (2019). The Brexit Botnet and user-Generated Hyperpartisan news. Social Science Computer Review, 37(1), 38–54. doi:10.1177/0894439317734157.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benkler, Y., Faris, R., & Roberts, H. (2018). Network propaganda: Manipulation, disinformation, and Radicalization in American politics. New York, US: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bennett, W. L., & Segerberg, A. (2013). The logic of Connective action: Digital media and the personalization of Contentious politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bennett, W. L., & Steven, L. (2018). The disinformation order: Disruptive communication and the decline of democratic institutions. European Journal of Communication, 33(2), 122–139. doi:10.1177/0267323118760317.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bessi, A., & Ferrara, E. (2016). Social bots distort the 2016 US Presidential election online discussion. First Monday, 21(11). https://firstmonday.org/article/view/7090/5653.
   Google Scholar
• Biernacki, P., & Waldorf, D. (1981). Snowball sampling: Problems and techniques of chain referral sampling. Sociological Methods & Research, 10(2), 141–163.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blank, G. (2016). The digital divide Among Twitter users and Its implications for social research. Social Science Computer Review, 35(6), 679–697. doi:10.1177/0894439316671698.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• boyd, d. (2008). Taken out of context: American teen sociality in networked publics. Berkeley: University of California.
   Google Scholar
• boyd, d., & Crawford, K. (2012). Critical questions for Big data. Information, Communication & Society, 15(5), 662–679. doi:10.1080/1369118x.2012.678878.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruns, A. (2005). Gatewatching: Collaborative online news production (Vol. 26). New York: Peter Lang Pub Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Bruns, A., Bechmann, A., Burgess, J., Chadwick, A., Clark, L. S., Dutton, W. H., … Hofmann, J. (2018). Facebook shuts the gate after the horse has bolted, and hurts real research in the process. Internet Policy Review. https://policyreview.info/articles/news/facebook-shuts-gate-after-horse-has-bolted-and-hurts-real-research-process/786.
   Google Scholar
• Bucher, T. (2017). The algorithmic imaginary: Exploring the ordinary affects of Facebook algorithms. Information, Communication & Society, 20(1), 30–44. doi:10.1080/1369118X.2016.1154086.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bundeskartellamt. (2019). Bundeskartellamt prohibits Facebook from combining user data from different sources [Press release]. Retrieved from https://www.bundeskartellamt.de/SharedDocs/Meldung/EN/Pressemitteilungen/2019/07_02_2019_Facebook.html
   Google Scholar
• Burgess, J., & Bruns, A. (2015). Easy data, hard data: The politics and pragmatics of Twitter research after the computational turn. In G. Elmer, J. Langlois, & J. Redden (Eds.), Compromised data from social media to Big data (pp. 93–111). London: Bloomsbury Academic.
   Google Scholar
• Castells, M. (2009). Communication power. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Castells, M. (2012). Networks of outrage and hope: Social movements in the internet age. Cambridge: Polity Press.
   Google Scholar
• Chadwick, A. (2017). The hybrid media system: Politics and power. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Chadwick, A., Vaccari, C., & O’Loughlin, B. (2018). Do tabloids poison the well of social media? Explaining democratically dysfunctional news sharing. New Media & Society, 1461444818769689. doi:10.1177/1461444818769689.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Comor, E. (2001). Harold Innis and ‘The bias of communication’. Information, Communication & Society, 4(2), 274–294. doi:10.1080/713768518.
   Google Scholar
• Dance, G. J. X., LaForgia, M., & Confessore, N. (2018). As Facebook Raised a Privacy Wall, It Carved an Opening for Tech Giants.
   Google Scholar
• Doctorow, C. (2019, 6 June 2019). Regulating Big Tech makes them stronger, so they need competition instead. The Economist.
   Google Scholar
• Driscoll, K., & Walker, S. (2014). Working within a black box: Transparency in the collection and production of big Twitter data. International Journal of Communication, 8, 1745–1764.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Facebook. (2019). Public Feed API. Retrieved from https://developers.facebook.com/docs/public_feed/
   Google Scholar
• Felt, M. (2016). Social media and the social sciences: How researchers employ big data analytics. Big Data & Society, 3(1), 1–15. 2053951716645828.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernback, J. (2007). Beyond the diluted community concept: A symbolic interactionist perspective on online social relations. New Media & Society, 9(1), 49–69. doi:10.1177/1461444807072417.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferrara, E. (2017). Disinformation and social bot operations in the run up to the 2017 French presidential election. 2017. doi:10.5210/fm.v22i8.8005.
   Google Scholar
• Fiesler, C., & Proferes, N. (2018). “Participant” perceptions of Twitter research ethics. Social Media + Society, 4(1), 2056305118763366. doi:10.1177/2056305118763366.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freelon, D. (2018). Computational research in the post-API age. Political Communication, 1–4. doi:10.1080/10584609.2018.1477506.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gauchat, G. (2012). Politicization of science in the public sphere: A study of public trust in the United States, 1974 to 2010. American Sociological Review, 77(2), 167–187. doi:10.1177/0003122412438225.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gehl, R. W. (2011). The archive and the processor: The internal logic of Web 2.0. New Media & Society, 13(8), 1228–1244. doi:10.1177/1461444811401735.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerlitz, C., & Helmond, A. (2013). The like economy: Social buttons and the data-intensive web. New Media & Society, 15(8), 1348–1365.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray, J., Szalay, A. S., Thakar, A. R., & Stoughton, C. (2002). Online scientific data curation, publication, and archiving. Paper presented at the Astronomical Telescopes and Instrumentation.
   Google Scholar
• Gumport, P. J. (1997). Public universities as academic workplaces. Daedalus, 126(4), 113–136.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helmond, A. (2015). The platformization of the web: Making web data platform ready. Social Media+ Society, 1(2), 1–11. 2056305115603080.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hermida, A. (2010). Twittering the news: The emergence of ambient journalism. Journalism Practice, 4(3), 297–308. doi:10.1080/17512781003640703.
   Google Scholar
• House of Commons Digital, C., Media and Sport Committee. (2019). Disinformation and fake news: Final report. Retrieved from https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmcumeds/1791/1791.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Howard, P. N., & Hussain, M. M. (2013). Democracy's fourth wave?: Digital media and the Arab spring. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Innis, H. A. (1982). The Bias of communication. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
   Google Scholar
• Jenkins, H., Ford, S., Green, J., & New, C. (2013). Spreadable media: Creating value and meaning in a networked and London. New York: New York University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Karlova, N. A., & Fisher, K. E. (2013). A social diffusion model of misinformation and disinformation for understanding human information behaviour. Information Research, 18(1). http://informationr.net/ir/18-1/paper573.html.
   Google Scholar
• Laclau, E. (2001). Democracy and the question of power. Constellations (Oxford, England), 8(1), 3–14.
   Google Scholar
• Langley, P., & Leyshon, A. (2017). Platform capitalism: The intermediation and capitalization of digital economic circulation. Finance and Society, 3(1), 11–31. doi:10.2218/finsoc.v3i1.1936.
   Google Scholar
• Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., & Cook, J. (2017). Beyond misinformation: Understanding and coping with the “post-truth” era. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 6(4), 353–369. doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.07.008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loader, B. D., & Mercea, D. (2011). Networking democracy? Information, Communication & Society, 14(6), 757–769. doi:10.1080/1369118x.2011.592648.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lomborg, S., & Kapsch, P. H. (2019). Decoding algorithms. Media, Culture & Society, 0(0), 0163443719855301. doi:10.1177/0163443719855301.
   Google Scholar
• Lynch, C. (2008). Big data: How do your data grow? Nature, 455(7209), 28–29.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milan, S., & Treré, E. (2019). Big data from the south(s): Beyond data Universalism. Television & New Media, 20(4), 319–335. doi:10.1177/1527476419837739.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Möller, J., Trilling, D., Helberger, N., & van Es, B. (2018). Do not blame it on the algorithm: An empirical assessment of multiple recommender systems and their impact on content diversity. Information, Communication & Society, 1–19. doi:10.1080/1369118X.2018.1444076.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neate, R. (2018). Over $119bn wiped off of Facebook's market cap after growth shock. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/jul/26/facebook-market-cap-falls-109bn-dollars-after-growth-shock
   Google Scholar
• Plantin, J.-C., Lagoze, C., Edwards, P. N., & Sandvig, C. (2016). Infrastructure studies meet platform studies in the age of Google and Facebook. New Media & Society. doi:10.1177/1461444816661553.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg, M. (2018). Professor apologizes for helping Cambridge analytica harvest Facebook data. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/22/business/media/cambridge-analytica-aleksandr-kogan.html
   Google Scholar
• Schrage, E., & Ginsberg, D. (2018). Facebook launches new initiative to help scholars assess social media’s impact on elections [Press release]. Retrieved from https://newsroom.fb.com/news/2018/04/new-elections-initiative/
   Google Scholar
• Schroepfer, M. (2018). An update on our plans to restrict data access on Facebook ∣ Facebook newsroom. Retrieved from https://newsroom.fb.com/news/2018/04/restricting-data-access/
   Google Scholar
• Skeggs, B., & Yuill, S. (2015). The methodology of a multi-model project examining how values and value are made through Facebook relations. Information Communication and Society, 19(10), 1356–1372.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tufekci, Z. (2019, 7 March 2019). Zuckerberg’s so-called shift toward privacy. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/07/opinion/zuckerberg-privacy-facebook.html
   Google Scholar
• Tufekci, Z., & Wilson, C. (2012). Social media and the decision to participate in political protest: Observations from Tahrir Square. Journal of Communication, 62(2), 363–379.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Twitter. (2019). Documents. Retrieved from https://developer.twitter.com/en/docs
   Google Scholar
• Van Dijck, J. A. (2013). The culture of connectivity: A critical history of social media. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Venturini, T., & Rogers, R. (2019). “API-based research” or how can digital sociology and journalism studies learn from the Facebook and Cambridge analytica data breach. Digital Journalism, 1–9. doi:10.1080/21670811.2019.1591927.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volpicelli, G. (2019). Passing laws to force Facebook to fix fake news is asking for trouble. Wired. Retrieved from https://www.wired.co.uk/article/dcms-report-fake-news-report
   Google Scholar
• Walton, J. K. (2011). The idea of the University. In M. Bailey & D. Freedman (Eds.), The Assault on universities (pp. 15–26). London: Pluto Press.
   Google Scholar
• Weedon, J., Nuland, W., & Stamos, A. (2017). Information operations and Facebook. Retrieved from.
   Google Scholar
• Weller, K., & Kinder-Kurlanda, K. E. (2016). A manifesto for data sharing in social media research. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 8th ACM Conference on Web Science.
   Google Scholar
• Zuckerberg, M. (Producer). (2017, 03.06.2019). Building global community. Retrieved from https://www.facebook.com/notes/mark-zuckerberg/building-global-community/10154544292806634/
   Google Scholar
• Zuckerman, E. (2014). New media, new civics? Policy & Internet, 6(2), 151–168. doi:10.1002/1944-2866.poi360.
   Google Scholar