ICTs and the urban-rural divide: can online labour platforms bridge the gap?

References

• Adamson, D. W., Clark, D. E., & Partridge, M. D. (2004). Do urban agglomeration effects and household amenities have a skill bias? Journal of Regional Science, 44(2), 201–224. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/jors.2004.44.issue-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agrawal, A., Lacetera, N., & Lyons, E. (2016). Does standardized information in online markets disproportionately benefit job applicants from less developed countries? Journal of International Economics, 103, 1–12. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinteco.2016.08.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker, P. M., & Ward, A. C. (2002). Bridging temporal and spatial “gaps”: The role of information and communication technologies in defining communities. Information, Communication & Society, 5, 207–224. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/13691180210130789
   Google Scholar
• Beerepoot, N., & Lambregts, B. (2015). Competition in online job marketplaces: Towards a global labour market for outsourcing services? Global Networks, 15(2), 236–255. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/glob.2015.15.issue-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bettencourt, L. M., Samaniego, H., & Youn, H. (2014). Professional diversity and the productivity of cities. Scientific Reports, 4, 5393. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1038/srep05393
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blinder, A. S. (2009). How many US jobs might be offshorable? World Economics, 10, 41.
   Google Scholar
• Borchert, K., Hirth, M., Kummer, M. E., Laitenberger, U., Slivko, O., & Viete, S. (2018). Unemployment and online labor (Discussion Paper Number 18-023). ZEW – Centre for European Economic Research.
   Google Scholar
• Cairncross, F. (1997). The death of distance: How the communications revolution will change our lives. Orion Business Books.
   Google Scholar
• Castells-Quintana, D. (2017). Malthus living in a slum: Urban concentration, infrastructure and economic growth. Journal of Urban Economics, 98, 158–173. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2016.02.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castells, M. (1998). End of millennium, the information age: Economy, society and culture (Vol. III). Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Clark, G. L., Feldman, M. P., Gertler, M. S., & Wójcik, D. (2018). Economic geography in the twenty-first century. The new Oxford handbook of economic geography (pp. 1–16). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Corporaal, G. (2017). Organizing with on-demand freelancers in the platform economy. http://ilabour.oii.ox.ac.uk/organizing-with-on-demand-freelancers-in-the-platform-economy-part-one/.
   Google Scholar
• Davidson, R., & Poor, N. (2018). Location, location, location: how digital platforms reinforce the importance of spatial proximity. Information, Communication & Society, 22(10), 1–15.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drucker, P. F. (1969). The age of discontinuity. Butterworth-Heinemann.
   Google Scholar
• Flecker, J. (2016). Space, place and global digital work. Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Florida, R., & Mellander, C. (2018). Talent, skills, and urban economics. The new Oxford handbook of economic geography (pp. 499–518). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Forman, C., Goldfarb, A., & Greenstein, S. (2018). How geography shapes – and is shapey by – the internet. The new Oxford handbook of economic geography (pp. 269–285). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ganong, P., & Shoag, D. (2017). Why has regional income convergence in the US declined? Journal of Urban Economics, 102, 76–90. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2017.07.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaspar, J., & Glaeser, E. L. (1998). Information technology and the future of cities. Journal of Urban Economics, 43(1), 136–156. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1006/juec.1996.2031
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghani, E., Kerr, W. R., & Stanton, C. (2014). Diasporas and outsourcing: Evidence from oDesk and India. Management Science, 60, 1677–1697. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2013.1832
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbert, M. (2010). Theorizing digital and urban inequalities: Critical geographies of ‘race’, gender and technological capital. Information, Communication & Society, 13(7), 1000–1018. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2010.499954
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glaeser, E., & Gyourko, J. (2018). The economic implications of housing supply. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 32, 3–30. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.32.1.3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glaeser, E. L., & Kahn, M. E. (2004). Sprawl and urban growth. Handbook of regional and urban economics (Vol. 4, pp. 2481–2527). Elsevier.
   Google Scholar
• Glaeser, E. L., Kolko, J., & Saiz, A. (2001). Consumer city. Journal of Economic Geography, 1, 27–50. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/1.1.27
   Google Scholar
• Glasmeier, A. K. (2018). Income inequality and growing disparity: Spatial patterns of inequality and the case of the USA. The new Oxford handbook of economic geography (pp. 63–77). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Good, P. I. (2005). Permutation, parametric, and bootstrap tests of hypotheses. Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Graham, S. (1998). The end of geography or the explosion of place? Conceptualizing space, place and information technology. Progress in Human Geography, 22, 165–185. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1191/030913298671334137
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, M., Straumann, R. K., & Hogan, B. (2015). Digital divisions of labor and informational magnetism: Mapping participation in wikipedia. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 105(6), 1158–1178. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00045608.2015.1072791
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Granovetter, M. (1985). Economic action and social structure: The problem of embeddedness. American Journal of Sociology, 91(3), 481–510. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1086/228311
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Granovetter, M. (2005). The impact of social structure on economic outcomes. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19, 33–50. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1257/0895330053147958
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwood, M. J. (1997). Internal migration in developed countries. Handbook of Population and Family Economics, 1, 647–720. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S1574-003X(97)80004-9
   Google Scholar
• Hannák, A., Wagner, C., Garcia, D., Mislove, A., Strohmaier, M., & Wilson, C. (2017). Bias in online freelance marketplaces: Evidence from taskrabbit and fiverr. Proceedings of the 2017 ACM conference on computer supported cooperative work and social computing (pp. 1914–1933). ACM.
   Google Scholar
• Hardy, J., & Hollinshead, G. (2016). “Clouds” in the desert? Central and Eastern Europe and Ukraine in the new division of labour for business services and software development. Space, place and global digital work (pp. 83–103). Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Hargittai, E. (2002). Second-level digital divide: Differences in people's online skills. First Monday, 7. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v7i4.942
   Google Scholar
• Herslund, L. (2012). The rural creative class: Counterurbanisation and entrepreneurship in the Danish countryside. Sociologia Ruralis, 52(2), 235–255. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9523.2011.00560.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hong, Y., & Pavlou, P. (2014). Is the World truly'flat'? Empirical evidence from online labor markets.
   Google Scholar
• Horrigan, J. B. (2010). Broadband adoption and use in America (Working Paper Number 1). Federal Communications Commission.
   Google Scholar
• Horton, J. J. (2010). Online labor markets. International workshop on internet and network economics (pp. 515–522). Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Horton, J., Kerr, W. R., & Stanton, C. (2017). Digital labor markets and global talent flows (Working Paper Number 23398). National Bureau of Economic Research.
   Google Scholar
• Howard, P. N., Busch, L., & Sheets, P. (2010). Comparing digital divides: Internet access and social inequality in Canada and the United States. Canadian Journal of Communication, 35. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.22230/cjc.2010v35n1a2192
   Google Scholar
• Ipeirotis, P. G., & Horton, J. J. (2011). The need for standardization in crowdsourcing. Proceedings of the workshop on crowdsourcing and human computation at CHI, CHI, Vancouver, BC, May 7-12.
   Google Scholar
• Janeksela, G. M. (1982). Increasing confidence in social science research findings via cross-validation. International Review of Modern Sociology, 12(1), 67–75.
   Google Scholar
• Kässi, O., & Lehdonvirta, V. (2018a). Do digital skill certificates help new workers enter the market? Evidence from an online labour platform (Working Paper). Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford. https://osf.io/gejvz/.
   Google Scholar
• Kässi, O., & Lehdonvirta, V. (2018b). Online labour index: Measuring the online gig economy for policy and research. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 137, 241–248. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2018.07.056
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kok, S., & Weel, B.t. (2014). Cities, tasks, and skills. Journal of Regional Science, 54(5), 856–892. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/jors.2014.54.issue-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuek, S. C., Paradi-Guilford, C., Fayomi, T., Imaizumi, S., Ipeirotis, P., Pina, P., & Singh, M. (2015). The global opportunity in online outsourcing (Working Paper Number ACS14228). World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/138371468000900555/The-global-opportunity-in-online-outsourcing.
   Google Scholar
• LaRose, R., Gregg, J. L., Strover, S., Straubhaar, J., & Carpenter, S. (2007). Closing the rural broadband gap: Promoting adoption of the internet in rural America. Telecommunications Policy, 31(6–7), 359–373. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2007.04.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehdonvirta, V. (2016). Algorithms that divide and unite: Delocalisation, identity and collective action in ‘Microwork’. Space, place and global digital work (pp. 53–80). Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Lehdonvirta, V., Kässi, O., Hjorth, I., Barnard, H., & Graham, M. (2018). The global platform economy: A new offshoring institution enabling emerging economy micro-providers. Journal of Management, 45(2), 567–599.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lucas, R. E. (2004). Life earnings and rural-urban migration. Journal of Political Economy, 112(S1), S29–S59. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1086/379942
   Google Scholar
• Manyika, J., Lund, S., Robinson, K., Valentino, J., & Dobbs, R. (2015). A labor market that works: Connecting talent with opportunity in the digital age. McKinsey Global Institute. McKinsey & Company. https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/employment-and-growth/connecting-talent-with-opportunity-in-the-digital-age.
   Google Scholar
• Mayer-Schönberger, V., & Ramge, T. (2018). Reinventing capitalism in the age of big data. Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• McLuhan, M. (1964). Understanding media: Extensions of man. Routledge and Kegan Paul.
   Google Scholar
• Mitchell, C. J. (2004). Making sense of counterurbanization. Journal of Rural Studies, 20, 15–34. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0743-0167(03)00031-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mollick, E. (2014). The dynamics of crowdfunding: An exploratory study. Journal of Business Venturing, 29, 1–16. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2013.06.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moran, P. A. (1950). Notes on continuous stochastic phenomena. Biometrika, 37, 17–23. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/37.1-2.17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan, N., & Smit, E. (1996). Contemporary issues in strategic management. Kagiso.
   Google Scholar
• Negroponte, N. (1995). Being digital. Knopf.
   Google Scholar
• Newbold, K. B., & Brown, W. M. (2015). The urban-rural gap in university attendance: Determinants of university participation among Canadian youth. Journal of Regional Science, 55(4), 585–608. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/jors.2015.55.issue-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• North, D. C. (1990). A transaction cost theory of politics. Journal of Theoretical Politics, 2, 355–367. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0951692890002004001
   Google Scholar
• Ogilvie, S. (2011). Institutions and European trade: Merchant guilds, 1000–1800. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Pajarinen, M., Rouvinen, P., Claussen, J., Hakanen, J., Kovalainen, A., Kretschmer, T., Poutanen, S., Seifried, M., & Seppänen, L. (2018). Upworkers in Finland: Survey results (Tech. Rep.). The Research Institute of the Finnish Economy.
   Google Scholar
• Pallais, A. (2014). Inefficient hiring in entry-level labor markets. American Economic Review, 104, 3565–3599. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.104.11.3565
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pallais, A., & Sands, E. G. (2016). Why the referential treatment? Evidence from field experiments on referrals. Journal of Political Economy, 124, 1793–1828. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1086/688850
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pascal, A. (1987). The vanishing city. Urban Studies, 24, 597–603. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00420988720080821
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pawley, M. (1995). Architecture, urbanism and the new media. Mimeo.
   Google Scholar
• Pelletier, A., & Thomas, C. (2018). Information in online labour markets. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 34(3), 376–392. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/oxrep/gry005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Philip, L., & Williams, F. (2018). Remote rural home based businesses and digital inequalities: Understanding needs and expectations in a digitally underserved community. Journal of Rural Studies, 68, 306–318.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poon, S., & Jevons, C. (1997). Internet-enabled international marketing: A small business network perspective. Journal of Marketing Management, 13, 29–41. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/0267257X.1997.9964457
   Google Scholar
• Quattrone, G., Greatorex, A., Quercia, D., Capra, L., & Musolesi, M. (2018). Analyzing and predicting the spatial penetration of Airbnb in US cities. EPJ Data Science, 7, 31. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1140/epjds/s13688-018-0156-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quigley, J. M. (1998). Urban diversity and economic growth. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 12, 127–138. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.12.2.127
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riddlesden, D., & Singleton, A. D. (2014). Broadband speed equity: A new digital divide? Applied Geography, 52, 25–33. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2014.04.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts, E., & Townsend, L. (2016). The contribution of the creative economy to the resilience of rural communities: Exploring cultural and digital capital. Sociologia Ruralis, 56, 197–219. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/soru.2016.56.issue-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russ, D. E, Ho, K.-Y., Colt, J. S., Armenti, K. R., Baris, D., Chow, W.-H., Davis, F., Johnson, A., Purdue, M. P., Karagas, M. R., Schwartz, K., Schwenn, M., Silverman, D. T., Johnson, C. A., & Friesen, M. C. (2016). Computer-based coding of free-text job descriptions to efficiently identify occupations in epidemiological studies. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 73(6), 417–424. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2015-103152
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salemink, K., Strijker, D., & Bosworth, G. (2017). Rural development in the digital age: A systematic literature review on unequal ICT availability, adoption, and use in rural areas. Journal of Rural Studies, 54, 360–371. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2015.09.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sawhney, H. (1996). Information superhighway: Metaphors as midwives. Media, Culture & Society, 18, 291–314. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/016344396018002007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shevchuk, A., & Strebkov, D. (2018). Safeguards against opportunism in freelance contracting on the internet. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 56, 342–369. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/bjir.2018.56.issue-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephany, F., & Braesemann, F. (2017). An exploration of wikipedia data as a measure of regional knowledge distribution. In G. L. Ciampaglia, A. Mashhadi, & T. Yasseri (Eds.), Social informatics (pp. 31–40). Springer International Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Stephany, F., Braesemann, F., & Graham, M. (2019). Coding together-coding alone: The role of trust in collaborative programming (Tech. Rep.). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/8rf2h.
   Google Scholar
• Stern, M. J., Adams, A. E., & Elsasser, S. (2009). Digital inequality and place: The effects of technological diffusion on internet proficiency and usage across rural, suburban, and urban counties. Sociological Inquiry, 79, 391–417. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/soin.2009.79.issue-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strover, S. (2014). The US digital divide: A call for a new philosophy. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 31, 114–122. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/15295036.2014.922207
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suominen, K. (2017). Fuelling trade in the digital era (Issue Paper). International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development.
   Google Scholar
• Sveikauskas, L. (1975). The productivity of cities. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 89(3), 393–413. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2307/1885259
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UN (2018). World urbanization prospects: The 2018 revision (Tech. Rep.). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Population Division.
   Google Scholar
• US-Census (2016). 2012–2016 American community survey 5-year estimates. https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/index.xhtml.
   Google Scholar
• Verboord, M., & Noord, S.v. (2016). The online place of popular music: Exploring the impact of geography and social media on pop artists' mainstream media attention. Popular Communication, 14(2), 59–72. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/15405702.2015.1019073
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Virilio, P. (1993). The third interval: A critical transition. Rethinking technologies (pp. 3–10). University of Minnesota Press.
   Google Scholar
• Webber, M. M. (1968). The post-city age. Daedalus, 97(4), 1091–1110.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood, A. J., Graham, M., Lehdonvirta, V., & Hjorth, I. (2018). Good gig, bad gig: Autonomy and algorithmic control in the global gig economy. Work, Employment and Society.
   Google Scholar
• Wood, A. J., Lehdonvirta, V., & Graham, M. (2018). Workers of the internet unite? Online freelancer organisation among remote gig economy workers in six Asian and African countries. New Technology, Work and Employment, 33(2), 95–112. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/ntwe.12112
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeileis, A., Kleiber, C., & Jackman, S. (2008). Regression models for count data in R. Journal of Statistical Software, 27, 1–25.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar