References
- Acker, A., & Donovan, J. (2019). Data craft: A theory/methods package for critical internet studies. Information Communication and Society, 22(11), 1590–1609. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2019.1645194
- Al-Rawi, A., & Rahman, A. (2020). Manufacturing rage: The Russian Internet Research agency’s political astroturfing on social media. First Monday, 8(9), 163–168. https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v25i9.10801
- Alvarez, G., Choi, J. R., & Strover, S.. (2020). Good news, bad news: A sentiment analysis of the 2016 Election Russian Facebook ads. International Journal of Communication, 14, 3027–3053.
- Anderson, M., Toor, S., Rainie, L., & Smith, A. (2018). Activism in the social media age. https://doi.org/10.1080/08998280.2018.1441474
- Anti-Defamation League. (2020a). Aryan Renaissance Society. Adl.org. https://www.adl.org/education/references/hate-symbols/aryan-renaissance-society
- Anti-Defamation League. (2020b). White Lives Matter. Adl.org. https://www.adl.org/education/references/hate-symbols/white-lives-matter
- Bail, C. A., Guay, B., Maloney, E., Combs, A., Hillygus, D. S., Merhout, F., Freelon, D., & Volfovsky, A. (2020). Assessing the Russian Internet Research Agency’s impact on the political attitudes and behaviors of American Twitter users in late 2017. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(1), 243–250. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1906420116
- Bastos, M., & Farkas, J. (2019). “Donald Trump Is My President!”: The Internet Research Agency propaganda machine. Social Media and Society, 5(3), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305119865466
- Becker, H. (1995). The nature and consequences of black propaganda. American Sociological Review, 14(2), 221–235. https://doi.org/10.2307/2086855
- Bennett, W. L. (2006). Communicating global activism: Strength and vulnerabilities of networked politics. In W. van de Donk, B. D. Loader, P. G. Nixon, & D. Rucht (Eds.), Cyberprotest: New media, citizens and social movements (pp. 109–128). Routledge.
- Boulianne, S., Koc-Michalska, K., & Bimber, B. (2020). Mobilizing media: Comparing TV and social media effects on protest mobilization. Information Communication and Society, 23(5), 642–664. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2020.1713847
- Chan, J., & Lee, C. (1984). The journalistic paradigm on civil protest: A case study of Hong Kong. In A. Arno & W. Dissanayake (Eds.), News media in national and international conflict (pp. 193–202). Westview Press.
- Daniels, J. (2009). Cloaked websites: Propaganda, cyber-racism and epistemology in the digital era. New Media and Society, 11(5), 659–683. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444809105345
- Douek, E. (2021). The free speech blind spot: Foreign election interference on social media. In D. B. Hollis, & J. D. Ohlin (Eds.), Combating election interference: When foreign powers target democracies [eBook edition]. Oxford University Press.
- Earl, J. (2010). The dynamics of protest-related diffusion on the web. Information Communication and Society, 13(2), 209–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691180902934170
- Earl, J., & Kimport, K. (2011). Digitally enabled social change: Activism in the internet age. MIT Press.
- Ellul, J. (1973). Propaganda: The formation of men’s attitudes. Vintage Books.
- Evans, S. K., Pearce, K. E., Vitak, J., & Treem, J. W. (2017). Explicating affordances: A conceptual framework for understanding affordances in communication research. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 22(1), 35–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12180
- Freelon, D., Bossetta, M., Wells, C., Lukito, J., Xia, Y., & Adams, K. (2020). Black trolls matter: Racial and ideological asymmetries in social media disinformation. Social Science Computer Review, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439320914853
- Fuchs, C. (2018). Propaganda 2.0: Herman and Chomsky’s propaganda model in the age of the internet, big data and social media. In J. Pedro-Carañana, D. Broudy, & J. Klaehn (Eds.), The propaganda model today: Filtering perception and awareness (pp. 71–92). University of Westminster Press.
- Gans, H. J. (2004). Deciding what’s news (25th anniversary edition). Northwestern University Press.
- Geertz, C. (1973). Thick description: Toward an interpretive theory of culture. In C. Geertz (Ed.), The interpretation of culture: Selected essays (pp. 310–323). Basic Books.
- Gehl, R. W. (2014). Reverse engineering social media: Software, culture, and political economy in new media capitalism. Temple University Press.
- Gitlin, T. (2003). The whole world is watching. University of California Press.
- Glaser, B. G. (1978). Theoretical sensitivity: Advances in the methodology of grounded theory. The Sociology Press.
- Golovchenko, Y., Buntain, C., Eady, G., Brown, M. A., & Tucker, J. A. (2020). Cross-platform state propaganda: Russian trolls on Twitter and YouTube during the 2016 U.S. presidential election. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 25(3), 357–389. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161220912682
- Greijdanus, H., de Matos Fernandes, C. A., Turner-Zwinkels, F., Honari, A., Roos, C. A., Rosenbusch, H., & Postmes, T. (2020). The psychology of online activism and social movements: Relations between online and offline collective action. Current Opinion in Psychology, 35, 49–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.03.003
- Harlow, S., Kilgo, D. K., Salaverría, R., & García-Perdomo, V. (2020). Is the whole world watching? Building a typology of protest coverage on social media from around the world. Journalism Studies, 21(11), 1590–1608. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2020.1776144
- Helmus, T. C., Bodine-Baron, E., Radin, A., Magnuson, M., Mendelsohn, J., Marcellino, W., Bega, A., & Winkelman, Z. (2018). Russian social media influence: Understanding Russian propaganda in Eastern Europe. Rand Corporation.
- Hepp, A., Breiter, A., & Friemel, T. N. (2018). Digital traces in context. International Journal of Communication, 12, 439–449. http://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/8650
- Howard, P. N., Ganesh, B., Liotsiou, D., Kelly, J., & François, C. (2019). The IRA, social media and political polarization in the United States, 2012-2018.
- Jamieson, K. H. (2018). Cyberwar: How Russian hackers and trolls helped elect a president. Oxford University Press.
- Jensen, K. B. (2012). Lost, found, and made: Qualitative data in the study of three-step flows of communication. In I. Volkmer (Ed.), The handbook of global media research (pp. 435–450). Wiley.
- Jowett, G. S., & O’Donnell, V. (2014). Propaganda and persuasion. SAGE Publications.
- Khan, Z., & Jarvenpaa, S. L. (2010). Exploring temporal coordination of events with Facebook.com. Journal of Information Technology, 25(2), 137–151. https://doi.org/10.1057/jit.2010.8
- Kim, Y. M., Hsu, J., Neiman, D., Kou, C., Bankston, L., Kim, S. Y., Heinrich, R., Baragwanath, R., & Raskutti, G. (2018). The stealth media? Groups and targets behind divisive issue campaigns on Facebook. Political Communication, 35(4), 515–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2018.1476425
- Lasswell, H. D. (1971). Propaganda technique in World War I. MIT Press.
- Latzko-Toth, G., Bonneau, C., & Millette, M. (2017). Small data, thick data: Thickening strategies for trace-based social media research. In A. Quan-Haase, & L. Sloan (Eds.), The Sage handbook of social media research methods (pp. 199–214). SAGE.
- Linvill, D. L., & Warren, P. L. (2020). Troll factories: Manufacturing specialized disinformation on Twitter. Political Communication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2020.1718257
- Markham, A. N. (2013). Fieldwork in social media. Qualitative Communication Research, 2(4), 434–446. https://doi.org/10.1525/qcr.2013.2.4.434
- McLeod, D. M., & Hertog, J. K. (1999). Social control, social change and the mass media’s role in the regulation of protest groups. In D. Demers, & K. Viswanath (Eds.), Mass media, social control, and social change: A macrosocial perspective (pp. 305–330). Iowa State University Press.
- Mercea, D. (2020). Tying transnational activism to national protest: Facebook event pages in the 2017 Romanian #rezist demonstrations. New Media and Society. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820975725
- Mercea, D., Iannelli, L., & Loader, B. D. (2016). Protest communication ecologies. Information Communication and Society, 19(3), 279–289. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2015.1109701
- Mourão, R. R., Kilgo, D. K., & Sylvie, G. (2018). Framing Ferguson: The interplay of advocacy and journalistic frames in local and national newspaper coverage of Michael Brown. Journalism. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884918778722
- Mueller, R. S. (2019). Report on the investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 Presidential Election.
- Mundt, M., Ross, K., & Burnett, C. M. (2018). Scaling social movements through social media: The case of Black Lives Matter. Social Media and Society, 4(4), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305118807911
- Puschmann, C. (2017). Bad judgment, bad ethics? Validity in computational social media research. In M. Zimmer, & K. Kinder-Kurlanda (Eds.), Internet research ethics for the social age: New challenges, cases, and contexts (pp. 97–113). Peter Lang.
- Reul, R., Paulussen, S., Raeijmaekers, D., van der Steen, L., & Maeseele, P. (2018). Professional journalistic routines and the protest paradigm: The Big Potato Swap in traditional and alternative media. Journalism, 19(7), 899–916. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884916636170
- Small, M. L. (2009). ‘How many cases do I need?’: On science and the logic of case selection in field-based research. Ethnography, 10(1), 5–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/1466138108099586
- Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. (1994). Grounded theory methodology: An overview. In N. K. Denzin, & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 273–285). SAGE.
- Tufekci, Z., & Wilson, C. (2012). Social media and the decision to participate in political protest: Observations from Tahrir Square. Journal of Communication, 62(2), 363–379. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01629.x
- U.S. House of Representatives Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence. (2018). Exposing Russia’s effort to sow discord online: The Internet Research Agency and advertisements. https://intelligence.house.gov/social-media-content/
- Wang, T. (2016). Why big data needs thick data. Medium.com. https://medium.com/ethnography-matters/why-big-data-needs-thick-data-b4b3e75e3d7
- Yin, R. K. (1994). Case study research: Design and methods (2.). Sage.