Digital microaggressions and everyday othering: an analysis of tweets sent to women members of Parliament in the UK

References

• Bardell, G. (2011). Breaking the mold: Understanding gender and electoral violence. IFES.
   Google Scholar
• Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
   Google Scholar
• Cadinu, M., Maass, A., Rosabianca, A., & Kiesner, J. (2005). Why do women underperform under stereotype threat? Evidence for the role of negative thinking. Psychological Science, 16(7), 572–578. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01577.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter A., & Sneesby J. (2017, January 25). Mistreatment of women MPs revealed. Retrieved October, 2020, from https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-38736729
   Google Scholar
• Cho, S., Crenshaw, K. W., & McCall, L. (2013). Toward a field of intersectionality studies: Theory, applications, and praxis. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 38(4), 785–810. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1086/669608
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collignon, S., & Rüdig, W. (2020). Harassment and intimidation of Parliamentary candidates in the United Kingdom. The Political Quarterly, 91(2), 422–429. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-923X.12855
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins, P. H., & Bilge, S. (2020). Intersectionality. John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics (p. 139). University of Chicago. Legal f.
   Google Scholar
• Follingstad, D. R., Rutledge, L. L., Berg, B. J., Hause, E. S., & Polek, D. S. (1990). The role of emotional abuse in physically abusive relationships. Journal of Family Violence, 5(2), 107–120. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00978514
   Google Scholar
• Fox, J., Cruz, C., & Lee, J. Y. (2015). Perpetuating online sexism offline: Anonymity, interactivity, and the effects of sexist hashtags on social media. Computers in Human Behavior, 52, 436–442. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.06.024
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hackworth, L. (2018). Limitations of ‘just gender’: The need for an intersectional reframing of online harassment discourse and research. In J. R. Vickery & T. Everbach (Eds.), Mediated misogyny: Gender, technolody, and harassment (pp. 51–70). Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Harmer, E., & Lewis, S. (2020). Disbelief and countervoices. Information, Communication and Society (online first). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2020.1770832
   Google Scholar
• Harmer, E., & Lumsden, K. (2019). Online othering: An introduction. In K. Lumsden & E. Harmer (Eds.), Online othering: Exploring digital violence and discrimination on the web (pp. 1–33). Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Herrick, R., Thomas, S., Franklin, L., Godwin, M. L., Gnabasik, E., & Schroedel, J. R. (2019). Physical violence and psychological abuse against female and male mayors in the United States. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 1–18. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2019.1629321
   Google Scholar
• Ikuenobe, P. (2011). Conceptualising racism and its subtle forms. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 41(2), 161–181. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5914.2010.00453.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inter-Parliamentary Union. (2016). Sexism, harassment and violence against women parliamentarians. IPU.
   Google Scholar
• Jane, E. A. (2014). “You’re a ugly, whorish, slut”, understanding E-bile. Feminist Media Studies, 14(4), 531–546. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2012.741073
   Google Scholar
• Kenski, K., Coe, K., & Rains, S. A. (2020). Perceptions of uncivil discourse online: An examination of types and predictors. Communication Research, 47(6), 795–814. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650217699933
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krook, M. L. (2020). Violence against women in politics: A global phenomenon. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lentin, A. (2020). Why race still matters. Polity Press.
   Google Scholar
• Maddocks, S. (2020). ‘A deepfake porn plot intended to silence me’: Exploring continuities between pornographic and ‘political’ deep fakes. Porn Studies, 7(4), 415–423. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/23268743.2020.1757499
   Google Scholar
• Maisel, S. (2012). The negative consequences of uncivil political discourse. PS: Political Science and Politics, 45, 405–411. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096512000467
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mason, R. (2014, July 16). Daily mail ‘downing street catwalk’ condemned by MPs. The Guardian. Retrieved November, 2020, from https://www.theguardian.com/media/2014/jul/16/daily-mail-downing-street-catwalk-female-ministers-outrage
   Google Scholar
• Nadal, K. L. (2008). Preventing racial, ethnic, gender, sexual minority, disability, and religious microaggressions: Recommendations for promoting positive mental health. Prevention in Counseling Psychology: Theory, Research, Practice and Training, 2(1), 22–27.
   Google Scholar
• Papacharissi, Z. (2004). Democracy online: Civility, politeness, and the democratic potential of online political discussion groups. New Media and Society, 6(2), 259–283. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444804041444
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pierce, C. J., Carew, D., Pierce-Gonzalez, D., & Willis, D. (1978). An experiment in racism: TV commercials. In C. Pierce (Ed.), Television and education (pp. 62–88). Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Puwar, N. (2004). Space invaders: Race, gender and bodies out of place. Bloomsbury.
   Google Scholar
• Rawlinson, K. (2018, June 11). Labour MP calls for end to online anonymity after ‘600 rape threats. Retrieved October, 2020, from https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/jun/11/labour-mp-jess-phillips-calls-for-end-to-online-anonymity-after-600-threats
   Google Scholar
• Rheault, L., Rayment, E., & Musulan, A. (2019). Politicians in the line of fire: Incivility and the treatment of women on social media. Research & Politics, 6(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/2053168018816228
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross, K. (2002). Women, politics, media: Uneasy relations in comparative perspective. Hampton Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rossini, P. (2020). Beyond incivility: Understanding patterns of uncivil and intolerant discourse in online political talk. Communication Research. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650220921314
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shields, S. A. (2008). Gender: An intersectionality perspective. Sex Roles, 59(5–6), 301–311. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9501-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobieraj, S. (2020). Credible threat: Attacks against women online and the future of democracy. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Southern, R., & Harmer, E. (2019). Othering political women: Online misogyny, racism and ableism towards women in public life. In K. Lumsden & E. Harmer (Eds.), Online othering: Exploring digital violence and discrimination on the web (pp. 187–210). Palgrave.
   Google Scholar
• Southern, R., & Harmer, E. (2021). Twitter, incivility and everyday othering: An analysis of Tweets sent to UK members of parliament. Social Science Computer Review, 39(2), 259–275. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439319865519
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stambolieva, E. (2017). Methodology: Detecting online abuse against women MPs on Twitter. Amnesty International.
   Google Scholar
• Stark, E. (2007). Interpersonal violence. Coercive control: How men entrap women in personal life. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Stubbs-Richardson, M., Rader, N. E., & Cosby, A. G. (2018). Tweeting rape culture: Examining portrayals of victim blaming in discussions of sexual assault cases on Twitter. Feminism & Psychology, 28(1), 90–108. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353517715874
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sue, D. W. (Ed.). (2010). Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestation, dynamics, and impact. John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A., Nadal, K. L., & Esquilin, M. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62(4), 271–286. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.271
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., & Ferguson, M. J. (2001). Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three daily diary studies. Journal of Social Issues, 57(1), 31–53. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00200
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trimble, L. (2017). Ms. Prime Minister: Gender, media and leadership. University of Toronto Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tuchman, G. (2000). The symbolic annihilation of women by the mass media. In L. Crothers & C. Lockhart (Eds.) Culture and politics (pp. 150–174). Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Wagner, A. (2020). Tolerating the trolls? Gendered perceptions of online harassment of politicians in Canada. Feminist Media Studies, 1–16. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2020.1749691
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward, S., & McLoughlin, L. (2020). Turds, traitors and tossers: The abuse of UK MPs via Twitter. The Journal of Legislative Studies, 26(1), 47–73. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/13572334.2020.1730502
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar