Is labour market discrimination against ethnic minorities better explained by taste or statistics? A systematic review of the empirical evidence

References

• Aeberhardt, Romain, Élise Coudin, and Roland Rathelot. 2017. “The Heterogeneity of Ethnic Employment Gaps.” Journal of Population Economics 30 (1): 307–337. doi:10.1007/s00148-016-0602-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agan, Amanda, and Sonja Starr. 2018. “Ban the Box, Criminal Records, and Racial Discrimination: A Field Experiment*.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 133 (1): 191–235. doi:10.1093/qje/qjx028.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aigner, D. J., and G. G. Cain. 1977. “Statistical Theories of Discrimination in Labor Markets.” ILR Review 30 (2): 175–187. doi:10.1177/001979397703000204.
   Google Scholar
• Allport, G. W. 1954. The Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books.
   Google Scholar
• Altonji, J. G. 2005. “Employer Learning, Statistical Discrimination and Occupational Attainment.” American Economic Review 95 (2): 112–117. doi:10.1257/000282805774670455.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Altonji, J. G., and C. R. Pierret. 2001. “Employer Learning and Statistical Discrimination.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 116 (1): 313–350. doi:10.1162/003355301556329.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arrow, K. J. 1972. “Some Mathematical Models of Race Discrimination in the Labor Market.” In Racial Discrimination in Economic Life, 1st ed., edited by A. H. Pascal, 187–204. Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath.
   Google Scholar
• Arrow, K. J. 1973. “The Theory of Discrimination.” In Discrimination in Labor Markets, 1st ed., edited by O. Ashenfelter, and A. Rees, 3–33. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Asali, Muhammad, Norberto Pignatti, and Sophiko Skhirtladze. 2018. “Employment Discrimination in a Former Soviet Union Republic: Evidence from a Field Experiment.” Journal of Comparative Economics 46 (4): 1294–1309. doi:10.1016/j.jce.2018.09.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Åslund, O., L. Hensvik, and O. N. Skans. 2014. “Seeking Similarity: How Immigrants and Natives Manage in the Labor Market.” Journal of Labor Economics 32 (3): 405–441. doi:10.1086/674985.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Åslund, Olof, and Dan-Olof Rooth. 2005. “Shifts in Attitudes and Labor Market Discrimination: Swedish Experiences After 9-11.” Journal of Population Economics 18 (4): 603–629. doi:10.1007/s00148-005-0036-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baert, S. 2018. “Hiring Discrimination: An Overview of (Almost) all Correspondence Experiments Since 2005.” In Audit Studies: Behind the Scenes with Theory, Method, and Nuance, 1st ed., edited by S. M. Gaddis, 63–77. Cham: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-71153-9_3.
   Google Scholar
• Baert, S., A. Albanese, S. du Gardein, J. Ovaere, and J. Stappers. 2017. “Does Work Experience Mitigate Discrimination?” Economics Letters 155: 35–38. doi:10.1016/j.econlet.2017.03.011.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baert, S., A.-S. De Meyer, Y. Moerman, and E. Omey. 2018. “Does Size Matter? Hiring Discrimination and Firm Size.” International Journal of Manpower 39 (4): 550–566. doi:10.1108/IJM-09-2017-0239.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baert, S., and A.-S. De Pauw. 2014. “Is Ethnic Discrimination due to Distaste or Statistics?” Economics Letters 125 (2): 270–273. doi:10.1016/j.econlet.2014.09.020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baert, Stijn, and Ann-Sophie De Pauw. 2014. “Is ethnic discrimination due to distaste or statistics?.” Economics Letters 125 (2): 270–273. doi:10.1016/j.econlet.2014.09.020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr, A., and A. Oduro. 2002. “Ethnic Fractionalization in an African Labour Market.” Journal of Development Economics 68 (2): 355–379. doi:10.1016/S0304-3878(02)00017-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartoš, Vojtěch, Michal Bauer, Julie Chytilová, and Filip Matějka. 2016. “Attention Discrimination: Theory and Field Experiments with Monitoring Information Acquisition.” American Economic Review 106 (6): 1437–1475. doi:10.1257/aer.20140571.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker, G. 1957. The Economics of Discrimination. 1st ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Becker, G. 1971. The Economics of Discrimination. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bertrand, M., D. Chugh, and S. Mullainathan. 2005. “Implicit Discrimination.” American Economic Review 95 (2): 94–98. doi:10.1257/000282805774670365.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bertrand, M., and E. Duflo. 2016. Field experiments on discrimination (NBER Working Paper No. 22014). National Bureau of Economic Research. doi:10.3386/w22014.
   Google Scholar
• Bertrand, M., and S. Mullainathan. 2004. “Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination.” American Economic Review 94 (4): 991–1013. doi:10.1257/0002828042002561.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bitzan, John D. 2009. “Do Sheepskin Effects Help Explain Racial Earnings Differences?.” Economics of Education Review 28 (6): 759–766. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2008.10.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bjerk, David. 2007. “The Differing Nature of Black-White Wage Inequality Across Occupational Sectors.” Journal of Human Resources XLII (2): 398–434. doi:10.3368/jhr.XLII.2.398.
   Google Scholar
• Blank, R. M., M. Dabady, and C. F. Citro. 2004. Measuring Racial Discrimination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
   Google Scholar
• Blommaert, L., M. Coenders, and F. van Tubergen. 2014. “Discrimination of Arabic-Named Applicants in the Netherlands: An Internet-Based Field Experiment Examining Different Phases in Online Recruitment Procedures.” Social Forces 92 (3): 957–982. doi:10.1093/sf/sot124.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blommaert, L., F. van Tubergen, and M. Coenders. 2012. “Implicit and Explicit Interethnic Attitudes and Ethnic Discrimination in Hiring.” Social Science Research 41 (1): 61–73. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.09.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bodvarsson, Örn B., and Mark D. Partridge. 2001. “A Supply and Demand Model of Co-worker, Employer and Customer Discrimination.” Labour Economics 8 (3): 389–416. doi:10.1016/S0927-5371(00)00029-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bohren, J. A., K. Haggag, A. Imas, and D. Pope. 2019. Inaccurate statistical discrimination: An identification problem (NBER Working Paper No. 25935). National Bureau of Economic Research. doi:10.3386/w25935.
   Google Scholar
• Borjas, G. 2020. “Labor Market Discrimination.” In Labor Economics, 8th ed. edited by G. Borjas, 299–340. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
   Google Scholar
• Borowczyk-Martins, Daniel, Jake Bradley, and Linas Tarasonis. 2017. “Racial Discrimination in the U.S. Labor Market: Employment and Wage Differentials by Skill.” Labour Economics 49: 106–127. doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2017.09.007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyd-Swan, C., and C. M. Herbst. 2019. “Racial and Ethnic Discrimination in the Labor Market for Child Care Teachers.” Educational Researcher 48 (7): 394–406. doi:10.3102/0013189X19867941.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryson, Alex, and Arnaud Chevalier. 2015. “Is There a Taste for Racial Discrimination Amongst Employers?.” Labour Economics 34: 51–63. doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2015.03.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Busetta, G., M. G. Campolo, and D. Panarello. 2018. “Immigrants and Italian Labor Market: Statistical or Taste-Based Discrimination?” Genus 74 (4): 1–20. doi:10.1186/s41118-018-0030-1.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Carlsson, M. 2010. “Experimental Evidence of Discrimination in the Hiring of First- and Second-Generation Immigrants.” Labour (committee. on Canadian Labour History) 24 (3): 263–278. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9914.2010.00482.x.
   Google Scholar
• Carlsson, Magnus, and Dan-Olof Rooth. 2012. “Revealing Taste-Based Discrimination in Hiring: A Correspondence Testing Experiment with Geographic Variation.” Applied Economics Letters 19 (18): 1861–1864. doi:10.1080/13504851.2012.667537.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charles, K. K., and J. Guryan. 2008. “Prejudice and Wages: An Empirical Assessment of Becker’s The Economics of Discrimination.” Journal of Political Economy 116 (5): 773–809. doi:10.1086/593073.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Combes, P.-P., B. Decreuse, M. Laouénan, and A. Trannoy. 2016. “Customer Discrimination and Employment Outcomes: Theory and Evidence from the French Labor Market.” Journal of Labor Economics 34 (1): 107–160. doi:10.1086/682332.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooke, A., D. Smith, and A. Booth. 2012. “Beyond PICO: The SPIDER Tool for Qualitative Evidence Synthesis.” Qualitative Health Research 22 (10): 1435–1443. doi:10.1177/1049732312452938.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Derous, E., H.-H. Nguyen, and A. M. Ryan. 2009. “Hiring Discrimination Against Arab Minorities: Interactions Between Prejudice and job Characteristics.” Human Performance 22 (4): 297–320. doi:10.1080/08959280903120261.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Derous, E., and A. M. Ryan. 2019. “When Your Resume is (not) Turning you Down: Modelling Ethnic Bias in Resume Screening.” Human Resource Management Journal 29 (2): 113–130. doi:10.1111/1748-8583.12217.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiMaggio, P., and F. Garip. 2012. “Network Effects and Social Inequality.” Annual Review of Sociology 38 (1): 93–118. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.012809.102545.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dobbin, F., and A. Kalev. 2013. “The Origins and Effects of Corporate Diversity Programs.” In The Oxford Handbook of Diversity and Work, 1st ed., edited by Q. M. Roberson, 253–281. New York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199736355.013.0015.
   Google Scholar
• Dobbin, F., D. Schrage, and A. Kalev. 2015. “Rage Against the Iron Cage.” American Sociological Review 80 (5): 1014–1044. doi:10.1177/0003122415596416.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drydakis, Nick. 2012. “Estimating Ethnic Discrimination in the Labour Market Using Experimental Data.” Southeast European and Black Sea Studies 12 (2): 335–355. doi:10.1080/14683857.2012.686016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edo, A., N. Jacquemet, and C. Yannelis. 2019. “Language Skills and Homophilous Hiring Discrimination: Evidence from Gender and Racially Differentiated Applications.” Review of Economics of the Household 17 (1): 349–376. doi:10.1007/s11150-017-9391-z.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• England, P., and P. Lewin. 1989. “Economic and Sociological Views of Discrimination in Labor Markets: Persistence or Demise?” Sociological Spectrum 9 (3): 239–257. doi:10.1080/02732173.1989.9981888.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein, G., D. Gafni, and E. Siniver. 2016. “Institutional Versus Labor Market Discrimination: The Case of Israeli Arabs.” Economics Bulletin 36 (3): 1670–1685.
   Google Scholar
• Fadlon, Yariv D. 2015. “Statistical Discrimination and the Implication of Employer-Employee Racial Matches.” Journal of Labor Research 36 (2): 232–248. doi:10.1007/s12122-015-9203-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fibbi, R., A. H. Midtbøen, and P. Simon. 2021. “Theories of Discrimination.” In Migration and Discrimination, 1st ed., edited by R. Fibbi, A. H. Midtbøen, and P. Simon, 21–41. Cham: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-67281-2_3.
   Google Scholar
• Fiske, S. T., A. J. C. Cuddy, P. Glick, and J. Xu. 2002. “A Model of (Often Mixed) Stereotype Content: Competence and Warmth Respectively Follow from Perceived Status and Competition.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82 (6): 878–902. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fryer, R. G., D. Pager, and J. L. Spenkuch. 2013. “Racial Disparities in job Finding and Offered Wages.” The Journal of Law and Economics 56 (3): 633–689. doi:10.1086/673323.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaddis, S. M. 2018. “An Introduction to Audit Studies in the Social Sciences.” In Audit Studies: Behind the Scenes with Theory, Method, and Nuance, 1st ed., edited by S. M. Gaddis, 3–44. Cham: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-71153-9_1.
   Google Scholar
• Glover, D., A. Pallais, and W. Pariente. 2017. “Discrimination as a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Evidence from French Grocery Stores.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 132 (3): 1219–1260. doi:10.1093/qje/qjx006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwald, A. G., M. R. Banaji, and B. A. Nosek. 2015. “Statistically Small Effects of the Implicit Association Test Can Have Societally Large Effects.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 108 (4): 553–561. doi:10.1037/pspa0000016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwald, A. G., D. E. McGhee, and J. L. K. Schwartz. 1998. “Measuring Individual Differences in Implicit Cognition: The Implicit Association Test.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (6): 1464–1480. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guryan, J., and K. K. Charles. 2013. “Taste-Based or Statistical Discrimination: The Economics of Discrimination Returns to its Roots.” The Economic Journal 123 (572): F417–F432. doi:10.1111/ecoj.12080.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heath, A. F., and V. Di Stasio. 2019. “Racial Discrimination in Britain, 1969–2017: A Meta-Analysis of Field Experiments on Racial Discrimination in the British Labour Market.” The British Journal of Sociology 70 (5): 1774–1798. doi:10.1111/1468-4446.12676.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedegaard, M. S., and J.-R. Tyran. 2018. “The Price of Prejudice.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 10 (1): 40–63. doi:10.1257/app.20150241.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hjort, Jonas. 2014. “Ethnic Divisions and Production in Firms *.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 129 (4): 1899–1946. doi:10.1093/qje/qju028.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogg, M. A. 2016. “Social Identity Theory.” In Understanding Peace and Conflict Through Social Identity Theory, edited by S. McKeown, R. Haji, and N. Ferguson, 1st ed., 3–17. Cham: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-29869-6_1.
   Google Scholar
• Horvath, Thomas, and Peter Huber. 2019. “Regional Ethnic Diversity and the Employment Prospects of Immigrants.” Regional Studies 53 (2): 272–282. doi:10.1080/00343404.2018.1462479.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaas, L., and C. Manger. 2012. “Ethnic Discrimination in Germany’s Labour Market: A Field Experiment.” German Economic Review 13 (1): 1–20. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0475.2011.00538.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koopmans, Ruud, Susanne Veit, and Ruta Yemane. 2017. “Taste or Statistics? A Correspondence Study of Ethnic, Racial and Religious Labour Market Discrimination in Germany.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 42 (16): 233–252. doi:10.1080/01419870.2019.1654114.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreisman, D., and M. A. Rangel. 2015. “On the Blurring of the Color Line: Wages and Employment for Black Males of Different Skin Tones.” Review of Economics and Statistics 97 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1162/REST_a_00464.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krumpal, I. 2013. “Determinants of Social Desirability Bias in Sensitive Surveys: A Literature Review.” Quality & Quantity 47 (4): 2025–2047. doi:10.1007/s11135-011-9640-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landis, J. R., and G. G. Koch. 1977. “The Measurement of Observer Agreement for Categorical Data.” Biometrics 33 (1): 159–174. doi:10.2307/2529310.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lane, T. 2016. “Discrimination in the Laboratory: A Meta-Analysis of Economics Experiments.” European Economic Review 90: 375–402. doi:10.1016/j.euroecorev.2015.11.011.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang, K., and A. Kahn-Lang Spitzer. 2020. “Race Discrimination: An Economic Perspective.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 34 (2): 68–89. doi:10.1257/jep.34.2.68.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang, K., and J.-Y. K. Lehmann. 2012. “Racial Discrimination in the Labor Market: Theory and Empirics.” Journal of Economic Literature 50 (4): 959–1006. doi:10.1257/jel.50.4.959.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laouénan, M. 2017. “Hate at First Sight’: Evidence of Consumer Discrimination Against African-Americans in the US.” Labour Economics 46: 94–109. doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2017.03.008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lippens, Louis, Stijn Baert, and Eva Derous. 2021. “Loss Aversion in Taste-Based Employee Discrimination: Evidence from a Choice Experiment.” Economics Letters 208: 110081; 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.econlet.2021.110081.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lippens, L., S. Vermeiren, and S. Baert. 2021. The state of hiring discrimination: A meta-analysis of (almost) all recent correspondence experiments (IZA Discussion Papers No. 14966). IZA Institute of Labor Economics.
   Google Scholar
• Longley, Neil. 2003. “Measuring Employer-Based Discrimination Versus Customer-Based Discrimination. The Case of French Canadians in the National Hockey League.” American Journal of Economics and Sociology 62 (2): 365–381. doi:10.1111/ajes.2003.62.issue-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGinnity, Frances, and Peter D Lunn. 2011. “Measuring Discrimination Facing Ethnic Minority Job Applicants: An Irish Experiment.” Work, Employment and Society 25 (4): 693–708. doi:10.1177/0950017011419722.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKenzie, J. E., and S. E. Brennan. 2021. “Synthesizing and Presenting Findings Using Other Methods.” In Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 6.2, edited by J. P. T. Higgins, J. Thomas, J. Chandler, M. Cumpston, T. Li, M. J. Page, and V. A. Welch. Online: Cochrane. www.training.cochrane.org/handbook.
   Google Scholar
• Midtbøen, A. H. 2015. “The Context of Employment Discrimination: Interpreting the Findings of a Field Experiment.” The British Journal of Sociology 66 (1): 193–214. doi:10.1111/1468-4446.12098.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neumark, D. 2018. “Experimental Research on Labor Market Discrimination.” Journal of Economic Literature 56 (3): 799–866. doi:10.1257/jel.20161309.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nunley, John M., Adam Pugh, Nicholas Romero, and R. Alan Seals. 2016. “College Major, Internship Experience, and Employment Opportunities: Estimates from a résumé Audit.” Labour Economics 38: 37–46. doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2015.11.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oreopoulos, P. 2011. “Why do Skilled Immigrants Struggle in the Labor Market? A Field Experiment with Thirteen Thousand Resumes.” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 3 (4): 148–171. doi:10.1257/pol.3.4.148.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oswald, F. L., G. Mitchell, H. Blanton, J. Jaccard, and P. E. Tetlock. 2013. “Predicting Ethnic and Racial Discrimination: A Meta-Analysis of IAT Criterion Studies.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 105 (2): 171–192. doi:10.1037/a0032734.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Page, M. J., J. E. McKenzie, P. M. Bossuyt, I. Boutron, T. C. Hoffmann, C. D. Mulrow, L. Shamseer, … D. Moher. 2021. “The PRISMA 2020 Statement: An Updated Guideline for Reporting Systematic Reviews.” BMJ 372 (n71): 1–9. doi:10.1136/bmj.n71.
   Google Scholar
• Pager, D. 2016. “Are Firms That Discriminate More Likely to go out of Business?” Sociological Science 3: 849–859. doi:10.15195/v3.a36.
   Google Scholar
• Pager, D., and H. Shepherd. 2008. “The Sociology of Discrimination: Racial Discrimination in Employment, Housing, Credit, and Consumer Markets.” Annual Review of Sociology 34 (1): 181–209. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.33.040406.131740.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paradies, Y., J. Ben, N. Denson, A. Elias, N. Priest, A. Pieterse, A. Gupta, M. Kelaher, and G. Gee. 2015. “Racism as a Determinant of Health: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” PLOS ONE 10 (9): e0138511, 1–48. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0138511.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pascoe, E. A., and L. Smart Richman. 2009. “Perceived Discrimination and Health: A Meta-Analytic Review.” Psychological Bulletin 135 (4): 531–554. doi:10.1037/a0016059.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettigrew, T. F., and L. R. Tropp. 2006. “A Meta-Analytic Test of Intergroup Contact Theory.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90 (5): 751–783. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettigrew, T. F., L. R. Tropp, U. Wagner, and O. Christ. 2011. “Recent Advances in Intergroup Contact Theory.” International Journal of Intercultural Relations 35 (3): 271–280. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.03.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phelps, E. S. 1972. “The Statistical Theory of Racism and Sexism.” The American Economic Review 62 (4): 659–661.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quillian, L., A. Heath, D. Pager, A. Midtbøen, F. Fleischmann, and O. Hexel. 2019. “Do Some Countries Discriminate More Than Others? Evidence from 97 Field Experiments of Racial Discrimination in Hiring.” Sociological Science 6: 467–496. doi:10.15195/v6.a18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramachandran, Rajesh, and Christopher Rauh. 2018. “Discrimination without Taste: How Discrimination can Spillover and Persist.” SERIEs 9 (3): 249–274. doi:10.1007/s13209-018-0179-z.
   Google Scholar
• Rich, J. 2014. What do Field Experiments of Discrimination in Markets Tell Us? A Meta Analysis of Studies Conducted Since 2000 (IZA Discussion Papers No. 8584). IZA Institute of Labor Economics.
   Google Scholar
• Ritter, Joseph A., and Lowell J. Taylor. 2011. “Racial Disparity in Unemployment.” Review of Economics and Statistics 93 (1): 30–42. doi:10.1162/REST_a_00063.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rooth, D.-O. 2010. “Automatic Associations and Discrimination in Hiring: Real World Evidence.” Labour Economics 17 (3): 523–534. doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2009.04.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rust, J., M. Kosinski, and D. Stillwell. 2020. Modern Psychometrics. 4th ed. London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315637686.
   Google Scholar
• Schaeffer, Merlin, Jutta Höhne, and Céline Teney. 2016. “Income Advantages of Poorly Qualified Immigrant Minorities: Why School Dropouts of Turkish Origin Earn More in Germany.” European Sociological Review 32 (1): 93–107. doi:10.1093/esr/jcv091.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Small, M. L., and D. Pager. 2020. “Sociological Perspectives on Racial Discrimination.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 34 (2): 49–67. doi:10.1257/jep.34.2.49.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tajfel, H., and J. C. Turner. 1979. “An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict.” In The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations, edited by W. G. Austin, and S. Worchel, 33–47. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
   Google Scholar
• Triana, M. del C., M. Jayasinghe, and J. R. Pieper. 2015. “Perceived Workplace Racial Discrimination and its Correlates: A Meta-Analysis.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 36 (4): 491–513. doi:10.1002/job.1988.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsui, A. S., and C. A. O’reilly. 1989. “Beyond Simple Demographic Effects: The Importance of Relational Demography in Superior-Subordinate Dyads.” Academy of Management Journal 32 (2): 402–423. doi:10.5465/256368.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uggen, Christopher, Mike Vuolo, Sarah Lageson, Ebony Ruhland, and Hilary K. Whitham. 2014. “The Edge of Stigma: An Experimental Audit of the Effects of Low-Level Criminal Records on Employment.” Criminology 52 (4): 627–654. doi:10.1111/crim.2014.52.issue-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• United Nations. 2020. Standard country or area codes for statistical use (M49). Accessed July 20, 2020. https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/.
   Google Scholar
• Vernby, K., and R. Dancygier. 2019. “Can Immigrants Counteract Employer Discrimination? A Factorial Field Experiment Reveals the Immutability of Ethnic Hierarchies.” PLOS ONE 14 (7): e0218044, 1–19. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0218044.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vuolo, M., S. Lageson, and C. Uggen. 2017. “Criminal Record Questions in the Era of “Ban the Box”.” Criminology & Public Policy 16 (1): 139–165. doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12250.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weichselbaumer, D. 2017. “Discrimination Against Migrant job Applicants in Austria: An Experimental Study.” German Economic Review 18 (2): 237–265. doi:10.1111/geer.12104.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zschirnt, E., and D. Ruedin. 2016. “Ethnic Discrimination in Hiring Decisions: A Meta-Analysis of Correspondence Tests 1990–2015.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 42 (7): 1115–1134. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2015.1133279.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar