What do we know about the role of gliotoxin in the pathobiology of Aspergillus fumigatus?

References

• Lewis RE, Wiederhold NP, Lionakis MS, Prince RA, Kontoyiannis DP. Frequency and species distribution of gliotoxin-producing Aspergillus isolates recovered from patients at a tertiary-care cancer center. J Clin Microbiol 2005; 43: 6120–6122
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardiner DM, Howlett BJ. Bioinformatic and expression analysis of the putative gliotoxin biosynthetic gene cluster of Aspergillus fumigatus. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2005; 248: 241–248
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patron NJ, Waller RF, Cozijnsen AJ, et al. Origin and distribution of epipolythiodioxopiperazine (ETP) gene clusters in filamentous ascomycetes. BMC Evol Biol 2007; 7: 174–188
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spikes S, Xu R, Nguyen CK, et al. Gliotoxin production in Aspergillus fumigatus contributes to host-specific differences in virulence. J Infect Dis 2008; 197: 479–486
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kupfahl C, Heinekamp T, Geginat G, et al. Deletion of the gliP gene of Aspergillus fumigatus results in loss of gliotoxin production but has no effect on virulence of the fungus in a low-dose mouse infection model. Mol Microbiol 2006; 62: 292–302
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugui JA, Pardo J, Chang YC, et al. Gliotoxin is a virulence factor of Aspergillus fumigatus: gliP deletion attenuates virulence in mice immunosuppressed with hydrocortisone. Eukaryot Cell 2007; 6: 1562–1569
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cramer RA, Jr, Gamcsik MP, Brooking RM, et al. Disruption of a nonribosomal peptide synthetase in Aspergillus fumigatus eliminates gliotoxin production. Eukaryot Cell 2006; 5: 972–980
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bok JW, Chung D, Balajee SA, et al. GliZ, a transcriptional regulator of gliotoxin biosynthesis, contributes to Aspergillus fumigatus virulence. Infect Immun 2006; 74: 6761–6768
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwon-Chung KJ, Bennett JE. Medical Mycology. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia 1992
   Google Scholar
• dos Santos VM, Dorner JW, Carreira F. Isolation and toxigenicity of Aspergillus fumigatus from moldy silage. Mycopathologia 2003; 156: 133–138
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kosalec I, Pepeljnjak S. Mycotoxigenicity of clinical and environmental Aspergillus fumigatus and A. flavus isolates. Acta Pharm 2005; 55: 365–375
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rohlfs M, Albert M, Keller NP, Kempken F. Secondary chemicals protect mould from fungivory. Biol Lett 2007; 3: 523–525
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bok JW, Balajee SA, Marr KA, et al. LaeA, a regulator of morphogenetic fungal virulence factors. Eukaryot Cell 2005; 4: 1574–1582
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sugui JA, Pardo J, Chang YC, et al. Role of laeA in the regulation of alb1, gliP, conidial morphology, and virulence in Aspergillus fumigatus. Eukaryot Cell 2007; 6: 1552–1561
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Blastomyces dermatitidis. St Louis, MO: Genome Sequencing Center, Washington University School of Medicine. 2008. Available from the website: http://genome.wustl.edu/tools/blast/.
   Google Scholar
• Daniel R. The metagenomics of soil. Nat Rev Microbiol 2005; 3: 470–478
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trown PW, Bilello JA. Mechanism of action of gliotoxin: elimination of activity by sulfhydryl compounds. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1972; 2: 261–266
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waring P, Beaver J. Gliotoxin and related epipolythiodioxopiperazines. Gen Pharmacol 1996; 27: 1311–1316
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gardiner DM, Waring P, Howlett BJ. The epipolythiodioxopiperazine (ETP) class of fungal toxins: distribution, mode of action, functions and biosynthesis. Microbiology 2005; 151: 1021–1032
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mullbacher A, Eichner RD. Immunosuppression in vitro by a metabolite of a human pathogenic fungus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1984; 81: 3835–3837
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eichner RD, Al Salami M, Wood PR, Mullbacher A. The effect of gliotoxin upon macrophage function. Int J Immunopharmacol 1986; 8: 789–797
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pahl HL, Krauss B, Schulze-Osthoff K, et al. The immunosuppressive fungal metabolite gliotoxin specifically inhibits transcription factor NF-kappaB. J Exp Med 1996; 183: 1829–1840
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niide O, Suzuki Y, Yoshimaru T, Inoue T, Takayama T, Ra C. Fungal metabolite gliotoxin blocks mast cell activation by a calcium- and superoxide-dependent mechanism: implications for immunosuppressive activities. Clin Immunol 2006; 118: 108–116
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waring P, Eichner RD, Mullbacher A, Sjaarda A. Gliotoxin induces apoptosis in macrophages unrelated to its antiphagocytic properties. J Biol Chem 1988; 263: 18493–18499
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanzani M, Orciuolo E, Lewis R, et al. Aspergillus fumigatus suppresses the human cellular immune response via gliotoxin-mediated apoptosis of monocytes. Blood 2005; 105: 2258–2265
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pardo J, Urban C, Galvez EM, et al. The mitochondrial protein Bak is pivotal for gliotoxin-induced apoptosis and a critical host factor of Aspergillus fumigatus virulence in mice. J Cell Biol 2006; 174: 509–519
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orciuolo E, Stanzani M, Canestraro M, Galimberti S, Carulli G, Lewis R, Petrini M, Komanduri KV. Effects of Aspergillus fumigatus gliotoxin and methylprednilosone on human neutrophils: implications for the pathogenesis of invasive aspergillosis. J Leukocyte Biol 2007; 82: 839–848
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsunawaki S, Yoshida LS, Nishida S, Kobayashi T, Shimoyama T. Fungal metabolite gliotoxin inhibits assembly of the human respiratory burst NADPH oxidase. Infect Immun 2004; 72: 3373–3382
   Google Scholar
• Amitani R, Taylor G, Elezis EN, et al. Purification and characterization of factors produced by Aspergillus fumigatus which affect human ciliated respiratory epithelium. Infect Immun 1995; 63: 3266–3271
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nierman, WC, Fedorova, N. Subtelomeric diversity as a major force in evolution of Aspergillus secondary metabolism and virulence pathways, In: 3rd Advances Against Aspergillosis. Miami Beach, Florida, 2008, p. 77.
   Google Scholar
• Balibar CJ, Walsh CT. GliP, a multimodular nonribosomal peptide synthetase in Aspergillus fumigatus, makes the diketopiperazine scaffold of gliotoxin. Biochem 2006; 45: 15029–15038
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsai H-F, Chang YC, Wheeler MH, Kwon-Chung KJ. A developmentally regulated gene cluster involved in conidial pigment biosynthesis in Aspergillus fumigatus. J. Bacteriol 1999; 181: 6469–6477
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calvo AM, Wilson RA, Bok JW, Keller NP. Relationship between secondary metabolism and fungal development. J Leukocyte Biol 2002; 66: 447–459
   Google Scholar
• Latge LP. Aspergillus fumigatus and aspergillosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 1999; 12: 310–350
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grow WB, Moreb JS, Roque D, et al. Late onset of invasive aspergillus infection in bone marrow transplant patients at a university hospital. Bone Marrow Transplant 2002; 29: 15–19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ribaud P, Chastang C, Latge JP, et al. Survival and prognostic factors of invasive aspergillosis after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 28: 322–330
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marr KA, Carter RA, Boeckh M, Martin P, Corey L. Invasive aspergillosis in allogeneic stem cell transplant recipients: changes in epidemiology and risk factors. Blood 2002; 100: 4358–4366
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jantunen E, Anttila VJ, Ruutu T. Aspergillus infections in allogeneic stem cell transplant recipients: have we made any progress?. Bone Marrow Transplant 2002; 30: 925–929
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar