1,095
Views
104
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Mapping the connections between education and dementia

, , &
Pages 127-141 | Received 07 Jun 2005, Accepted 28 Dec 2005, Published online: 30 Jan 2007

REFERENCES

  • American Psychiatric Association . 1994 . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: , fourth , Washington, DC : American Psychiatric Association .
  • Beard , C. M. , Kokmen , E. , Offord , K. P. and Kurland , L. T. 1992 . Lack of association between Alzheimer's disease and education, occupation, marital status, or living arrangement . Neurology , 42 : 2063 – 2068 .
  • Bennett , D. A. , Wilson , R. S. , Schneider , J. A. , Evans , D. A. , Mendes de Leon , C. F. Arnold , S. E. 2003 . Education modifies the relation of AD pathology to level of cognitive function in older persons . Neurology , 60 : 1909 – 1915 .
  • Bonaiuto , S. , Rocca , W. A. and Lippi , A. 1990 . Impact of education and occupation on prevalence of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and multi-infaret dementia (MID) in Appignano, Macerata Province, Italy . Neurology , 40 ( Suppl.1 ) : 346
  • Brenner , D. E. , Kukull , W. A. , van Belle , G. , Bowen , J. D. , McCormick , W. C. Teri , L. 1993 . Relationship between cigarette smoking and Alzheimer's disease in a population-based case-control study . Neurology , 43 : 293 – 300 .
  • Callahan , C. M. , Hall , K. S. , Hui , S. L. , Musick , B. S. , Unverzagt , F. W. and Hendrie , H. C. 1996 . Relationship of age, education, and occupation with dementia among a community-based sample of African Americans . Archives of Neurology , 53 : 134 – 140 .
  • Canadian Study of Health and Aging . 1994 . The Canadian Study of Health and Aging: Risk factors for Alzheimer's disease in Canada . Neurology , 44 : 2073 – 2080 .
  • Canadian Study of Health and Aging Working Group . 1994 . Canadian Study of Health and Aging: study methods and prevalence of dementia . Canadian Medical Association Journal , 150 : 899 – 913 .
  • Christensen , H. , Hofer , S. M. , MacKinnon , A. J. , Korten , A. E. , Jorm , A. F. and Henderson , A. S. 2001 . Age is no kinder to the better educated: Absence of an association investigated using latent growth techniques in a community sample . Psychological Medicine , 31 : 15 – 28 .
  • Dartigues , J.-F. , Gagnon , M. , Letenneur , L. , Barberger-Gateau , P. , Commenges , D. Evaldre , M. 1992a . Principal lifetime occupation and cognitive impairment in a French elderly cohort (PAQUID) . American Journal of Epidemiology , 135 : 981 – 988 .
  • Dartigues , J.-F. , Gagnon , M. , Mazaux , J. M. , Barberger-Gateau , P. , Commenges , D. Letenneur , L. 1992b . Occupation during life and memory performance in nondemented French elderly community residents . Neurology , 42 : 1697 – 1701 .
  • Dartigues , J.-F. , Gagnon , M. and Michel , P. 1991 . Le programme de recherche Paquid sur l’épidémiologie de la démence: Méthodes et résultats initiaux . Revue Neurologique (Paris) , 147 : 225 – 230 .
  • Eriksson , P. S. , Perfilieva , E. , Björk-Eriksson , T. , Alborn , A.-M. , Nordborg , C. Peterson , D.A. 1998 . Neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus . Nature Medicine , 4 : 1313 – 1317 .
  • Friedland , R. P. 1993 . Epidemiology, education, and the ecology of Alzheimer's disease . Neurology , 43 : 246 – 249 .
  • Gatz , M. , Svedberg , P. , Pedersen , N. L. , Mortimer , J. A. , Berg , S. and Johansson , B. 2001 . Education and the risk of Alzheimer's disease: findings from the Study of Dementia in Swedish Twins . Journal of Gerontology, Series B, Psychological Sciences , 56 ( B ) : P292 – P300 .
  • Gould , E. , Beylin , A. , Tanapat , P. , Reeves , A. and Shors , T. J. 1999 . Learning enhances adult neurogenesis in the hippocampal formation . Nature Neuroscience , 2 : 260 – 265 .
  • Gould , E. , Reeves , A. J. , Graziano , M. S. A. and Gross , C. G. 1999 . Neurogenesis in the neocortex of adult primates . Science , 286 : 548 – 552 .
  • Graham , J. E. , Rockwood , K. , Beattie , B. L. , McDowell , I. , Eastwood , R. and Gauthier , S. 1996 . Standardization of the diagnosis of dementia in the Canadian Study of Health and Aging . Neuroepidemiology , 15 : 246 – 256 .
  • Hagnell , O. , Franck , A. , Grasbeck , A. , Ohman , R. , Otterbeck , L. and Rorsman , B. 1992 . Senile dementia of the Alzheimer type in the Lundby Study, II. An attempt to identify possible risk factors . European Archives of Psychiatry & Clinical Neuroscience , 241 : 231 – 235 .
  • Hall , K. , Gureje , O. , Ogunniyi , A. , Hui , S. L. , Baiyewu , O. Unverzagt , F. W. 1998 . Risk factors and Alzheimer's disease: a comparative study of two communities . Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry , 32 : 698 – 706 .
  • Katzman , R. 1993 . Education and the prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease . Neurology , 43 : 13 – 20 .
  • Kempermann , G. , Kuhn , H. G. and Gage , F. H. 1997 . More hippocampal neurons in adult mice living in an enriched environment . Nature , 386 : 493 – 495 .
  • Knoefel , J. E. , Wolf , P. A. and Linn , R. T. 1991 . Education has no effect on incidence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in the Framingham study . Neurology , 41 ( Suppl.1 ) : 322 – 323 .
  • Lee , J. H. 2003 . Genetic evidence for cognitive reserve: Variations in memory and related cognitive functions . Journal of Clinical & Experimental Neuropsychology , 25 : 594 – 613 .
  • Letenneur , L. , Gilleron , V. , Commenges , D. , Helmer , C. , Orgogozo , J. M. and Dartigues , J. F. 1999 . Are sex and educational level independent predictors of dementia and Alzheimer's disease? Incidence data from the PAQUID project . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry , 66 : 177 – 183 .
  • Letenneur , L. , Jacqmin , H. , Commenges , D. , Barberger-Gateau , P. , Dartigues , J.-F. and Salamon , R. 1993 . Cerebral and functional aging: first results on prevalence and incidence of the Paquid cohort . Methods of Information in Medicine , 32 : 249 – 251 .
  • Lindsay , J. , Laurin , D. , Verreault , R. , Hébert , R. , Helliwell , B. Hill , G. B. 2002 . Risk factors for Alzheimer's disease: a prospective analysis from the Canadian Study of Health and Aging . American Journal of Epidemiology , 156 : 445 – 453 .
  • Liu , H. C. , Fuh , J. L. , Wang , S. J. , Liu , C. Y. , Larson , E. B. Lin , K. N. 1998 . Prevalence and subtypes of dementia in a rural Chinese population . Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders , 12 : 127 – 134 .
  • Lyketsos , C. G. , Chen , L.-S. and Anthony , J. C. 1999 . Cognitive decline in adulthood: an 11.5-year follow-up of the Baltimore Epidemiologic Catchment Area study . American Journal of Psychiatry , 156 : 58 – 65 .
  • Maguire , E. A. , Gadian , D. G. , Johnsrude , I. S. , Good , C. D. , Ashburner , J. Frackowiak , R. S. J. 2000 . Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 97 : 4398 – 4403 .
  • McDowell , I. , Aylesworth , R. , Stewart , M. , Hill , G. and Lindsay , J. 2001a . Study sampling in the Canadian Study of Health and Aging . International Psychogeriatrics , 13 ( Suppl. 1 ) : 19 – 28 .
  • McDowell , I. , Hill , G. and Lindsay , J. 2001 . An overview of the Canadian Study of Health and Aging . International Psychogeriatrics , 13 ( Suppl. 1 ) : 7 – 18 .
  • McDowell , I. , Kristjansson , B. , Hill , G. and Hébert , R. 1997 . Community screening for dementia: the Mini‐Mental State Exam (MMSE) and Modified Mini-Mental State (3MS) Exam compared . Journal of Clinical Epidemiology , 50 : 377 – 383 .
  • McDowell , I. , Stewart , M. , Kristjansson , B. , Sykes , E. , Hill , G. and Lindsay , J. 2001b . Data collected in the Canadian Study of Health and Aging . International Psychogeriatrics , 13 ( Suppl. 1 ) : 29 – 39 .
  • McKhann , G. , Drachman , D. , Folstein , M. , Katzman , R. , Price , D. and Stadlan , E. M. 1984 . Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: report of the NINCDS-ADRDA Work Group under the auspices of Department of Health and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer's Disease . Neurology , 34 : 939 – 944 .
  • Mortimer , J. A. 1997 . Brain reserve and the clinical expression of Alzheimer's disease . Geriatrics , 52 : S50 – S53 .
  • O’Connor , D. W. , Pollitt , P. A. and Treasure , F. P. 1991 . The influence of education and social class on the diagnosis of dementia in a community population . Psychological Medicine , 21 : 219 – 224 .
  • Ott , A. , Breteler , M. M. B. , van Harskamp , F. , Claus , J. J. , van , d. C. T. J. and Grobbee , D. E. 1995 . Prevalence of Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia: association with education. The Rotterdam study . British Medical Journal , 310 : 970 – 973 .
  • Pope , S. K. , Shue , V. M. and Beck , C. 2003 . Will a healthy lifestyle help prevent Alzheimer's disease? . Annual Review of Public Health , 24 : 111 – 132 .
  • Qiu , C. , Bäckman , L. , Winblad , B. , Agüero-Torres , H. and Fratiglioni , L. 2001 . The influence of education on clinically diagnosed dementia incidence and mortality data from the Kungsholmen Project . Archives of Neurology , 58 : 2034 – 2039 .
  • Ravaglia , G. , Forti , P. , Maioli , F. , Sacchetti , L. , Mariani , E. Nativio , V. 2002 . Education, occupation, and prevalence of dementia: findings from the Conselice study . Dementia & Geriatric Cognitive Disorders , 14 : 90 – 100 .
  • Richards , M. and Sacker , A. 2003 . Lifetime antecedents of cognitive reserve . Journal of Clinical & Experimental Neuropsychology , 25 : 614 – 624 .
  • Riley , K. P. , Snowdon , D. A. , Desrosiers , M. F. and Markesbery , W. R. 2005 . Early life ability, late life cognitive function, and neuropathology: Findings from the Nun Study . Neurobiol. Aging , 26 : 341 – 347 .
  • Román , G. C. , Tatemichi , T. K. , Erkinjuntti , T. , Cummings , J. L. , Masdeu , J. C. Garcia , J. H. 1993 . Vascular dementia: Diagnostic criteria for research studies. Report of the NINDS-AIREN International Workshop . Neurology , 43 : 250 – 260 .
  • Roth , M. , Huppert , F. A. , Tym , E. and Mountjoy , C. Q. 1988 . CAMDEX: the Cambridge examination for mental disorders of the elderly , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
  • Scarmeas , N. and Stern , Y. 2003 . Cognitive reserve and lifestyle . Journal of Clinical & Experimental Neuropsychology , 25 : 625 – 633 .
  • Statistics Canada . 1981 . Standard occupational classification 1980 , Ottawa, Canada : Minister of Supply and Services .
  • Stern , Y. 2003 . The concept of cognitive reserve: A catalyst for research . Journal of Clinical & Experimental Neuropsychology , 25 : 589 – 593 .
  • Stern , Y. , Gurland , B. , Tatemichi , T. K. , Tang , M.-X. , Wilder , D. and Mayeux , R. 1994 . Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease . Journal of the American Medical Association , 271 : 1004 – 1010 .
  • Stewart , M. , McDowell , I. , Hill , G. and Aylesworth , R. 2001 . Estimating antemortem cognitive status of deceased subjects in a longitudinal study of dementia . International Psychogeriatrics , 13 ( 1 ) : 99 – 106 .
  • Teng , E. L. and Chui , H. C. 1987 . The Modified Mini-Mental State (3MS) Examination . Journal of Clinical Psychiatry , 48 : 314 – 318 .
  • Tuokko , H. , Kristjansson , E. and Miller , J. 1995 . Neuropsychological detection of dementia: An overview of the neuropsychological component of the Canadian Study of Health and Aging . Journal of Clinical & Experimental Neuropsychology , 17 : 352 – 373 .
  • Wilson , R. S. , Barnes , L. L. and Bennett , D. A. 2003 . Assessment of lifetime participation in cognitively stimulating activities . Journal of Clinical & Experimental Neuropsychology , 25 : 634 – 642 .
  • Wilson , R. S. , Bennett , D. A. , Bienias , J. L. , Mendes de Leon , C. F. , Morris , M. C. and Evans , D. A. 2003 . Cognitive activity and cognitive decline in a biracial community population . Neurology , 61 : 812 – 816 .
  • World , Health Organization . 1992 . The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines , Geneva : World Health Organization .
  • Yesavage , J. A. 1985 . Non-pharmacological treatments for memory loss with normal ageing . American Journal of Psychiatry , 142 : 600 – 605 .
  • Zhang , M. , Katzman , R. , Salmon , D. , Jin , H. , Cai , G. Wang , Z. 1990 . The prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease (AD) in Shanghai, China: impact of age, gender, and education . Annals of Neurology , 27 : 428 – 437 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.