529
Views
25
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Neurocognitive impairments in MDMA and other drug users: MDMA alone may not be a cognitive risk factor

&
Pages 337-349 | Received 21 Jul 2008, Accepted 11 May 2009, Published online: 30 Sep 2009

REFERENCES

  • American Psychiatric Association . 2000 . Diagnostic and statistical manual for mental disorders text rev , 4th , Washington, DC : Author .
  • Back-Madruga , C. , Boone , K. B. , Chang , L. , Grob , C. S. , Lee , A. Nations , H. 2003 . Neuropsychological effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or ecstasy) in recreational users . Clinical Neuropsychologist , 17 : 446 – 459 .
  • Beck , A. T. , Ward , C. H. , Mendelsohn , M. , Mock , J. and Erbaugh , J. 1961 . An inventory for measuring depression . Archives of General Psychiatry , 4 : 561 – 571 .
  • Bhattachary , S. and Powell , J. H. 2001 . Recreational use of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or “ecstasy”: Evidence for cognitive impairment . Psychological Medicine , 31 : 647 – 658 .
  • Bolla , K. I. , Brown , K. , Eldreth , D. , Tate , K. and Cadet , J. L. 2002 . Dose-related neurocognitive effects of marijuana use . Neurology , 59 : 1337 – 1343 .
  • Bolla , K. I. , McCann , U. D. and Ricaurte , G. A. 1998 . Memory impairment in abstinent MDMA (“Ecstasy”) users . Neurology , 51 : 1532 – 1537 .
  • Braver , T. S. , Barch , D. M. , Gray , J. R. , Molfese , D. L. and Snyder , A. 2001 . Anterior cingulate cortex and response conflict: Effects of frequency, inhibition and errors . Cerebral Cortex , 11 : 825 – 836 .
  • Brown , S. A. , Tapert , S. F. , Granholm , E. and Delis , D. C . 2000 . Neurocognitive functioning of adolescents: Effects of protracted alcohol use . Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research , 24 : 164 – 171 .
  • Croft , R. J. , Mackay , A. J. , Mills , A. T. D. and Gruzelier , J. G. H. 2001 . The relative contributions of ecstasy and cannabis to cognitive impairment . Psychopharmacology , 153 : 373 – 379 .
  • Curran , H. V. 2000 . Is MDMA (ecstasy) neurotoxic in humans? An overview of evidence and methodological problems in research . Neuropsychobiology , 42 : 34 – 41 .
  • Curran , H. V. and Travill , R. A. 1997 . Mood and cognitive effects of ± 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, “ecstasy”): Week-end “high” followed by a mid-week low . Addiction , 92 ( 7 ) : 821 – 831 .
  • Curran , H. V. and Verheyden , S. L. 2003 . Altered response to tryptophan supplementation after long-term abstention from MDMA (ecstasy) is highly correlated with human memory function . Psychopharmacology , 169 : 91 – 103 .
  • Dafters , R. I. , Duffy , F. , O'Donnell , P. J. and Bouquet , C. 1999 . Level of use of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or Ecstasy) in humans correlates with EEG power and coherence . Psychopharmacology , 145 : 82 – 90 .
  • Dafters , R. I. , Hoshi , R. and Talbot , A. C. 2004 . Contribution of cannabis and MDMA (“ecstasy”) to cognitive changes in long-term polydrug users . Psychopharmacology , 173 : 405 – 410 .
  • Daumann , J. , Fischerman , T. , Heekeren , K. , Thron , A. and Gouzoulis-Mayfrank , E. 2004 . Neural mechanisms of working memory in ecstasy (MDMA) users who continue or discontinue ecstasy and amphetamine use: Evidence from an 18-month longitudinal functional magnetic resonance imaging study . Biological Psychiatry , 56 : 349 – 355 .
  • Davidson , D. and Parrott , A. C. 1997 . Ecstasy (MDMA) in recreational users: Self-reported psychological and physiological effects . Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental , 12 : 221 – 226 .
  • Delis , D. C. , Jacobson , M. , Bondi , M. W. , Hamilton , J. M. and Salmon , D. P. 2003 . The myth of testing construct validity using factor analysis or correlations with normal or mixed clinical populations: Lessons from memory assessment . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 9 : 936 – 946 .
  • Diwadkar , V. A. , Carpenter , P. A. and Just , M. A. 2000 . Collaborative activity between parietal and dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex in dynamic spatial working memory revealed by fMRI . NeuroImage , 12 : 85 – 99 .
  • Ellis , R. J. and Oscar-Berman , M. 1989 . Alcoholism, aging, and functional cerebral asymmetries . Psychological Bulletin , 106 : 128 – 147 .
  • Feldman , R. S. , Meyer , J. S. and Quenzer , L. F. 1997 . Principles of neuropsychopharmacology , Sunderland, MA : Sinauer Associates .
  • First , M. B. , Spitzer , R. L. , Gibbon , M. and Williams , J. B. W. 1997 . Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders–Patient Edition (SCID–I/P) , New York : New York State Psychiatric Institute, Biometrics Research Department . Version 2.0, 4/97 revision
  • Fletcher , J. M. , Page , J. B. , Francis , D. J. , Copeland , K. , Naus , M. J. Davis , C. M. 1996 . Cognitive correlates of long-term cannabis use in Costa Rican men . Archives of General Psychiatry , 53 : 1051 – 1057 .
  • Fox , H. C. , McLean , A. , Turner , J. J. D. , Parrott , A. C. , Rogers , R. and Sahakian , B. J. 2002 . Neuropsychological evidence of a relatively selective profile of temporal dysfunction in drug-free MDMA (“ecstasy”) polydrug users . Psychopharmacology , 162 ( 2 ) : 203 – 214 .
  • Fox , H. C. , Parrott , A. C. and Turner , J. J. D. 2001a . Ecstasy use: Cognitive deficits related to dosage rather than self-reported problematic use of the drug . Journal of Psychopharmacology , 15 ( 4 ) : 273 – 281 .
  • Fox , H. C. , Toplis , A. S. , Turner , J. J. D. and Parrott , A. C. 2001b . Auditory verbal learning in drug-free Ecstasy polydrug users . Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental , 16 : 613 – 618 .
  • Fray , P. J. , Robbins , T. W. and Sahakian , B. J. 1996 . Neuropsychiatric applications of CANTAB . International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry , 11 : 329 – 336 .
  • Gerra , G. , Zaimovic , A. , Ferri , M. , Zambelli , U. , Timpano , M. Neri , E. 2000 . Long-lasting effects of (±) 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (Ecstasy) on serotonin system function in humans . Biological Psychiatry , 47 : 127 – 136 .
  • Giedd , J. N. , Blumenthal , J. , Jeffries , N. O , Castellanos , F. X. , Liu , H. Zijdenbos , A. 1999 . Brain development during childhood and adolescence: A longitudinal MRI study . Nature Neuroscience , 2 : 861 – 863 .
  • Gogtay , N. , Giedd , J. N. , Lusk , L. , Hayashi , K. M. , Greenstein , D. Vaituzis , A. C. 2004 . Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 101 : 8174 – 8179 .
  • Gouzoulis-Mayfrank , E. , Daumann , J. , Tuchtenhagen , F. , Pelz , S. , Becker , S. Kunert , H. 2000 . Impaired cognitive performance in drug free users of recreational ecstasy (MDMA) . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, & Psychiatry , 68 ( 6 ) : 719 – 725 .
  • Gouzoulis-Mayfrank , E. , Fischermann , T. , Rezk , M. , Thimm , B. , Hensen , G. and Daumann , J. 2005 . Memory performance in polyvalent MDMA (ecstasy) users who continue or discontinue MDMA use . Drug and Alcohol Dependence , 78 : 317 – 323 .
  • Gouzoulis-Mayfrank , E. , Thimm , B. , Rezk , M. , Hensen , G. and Daumann , J. 2003 . Memory impairment suggests hippocampal dysfunction in abstinent ecstasy users . Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology, & Biological Psychiatry , 27 : 819 – 827 .
  • Grant , I. , Gonzalez , R. , Carey , C. L. , Natarajan , L. and Wolfson , T. 2003 . Nonacute (residual) neurocognitive effects of cannabis use: A meta analytic study . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 9 : 679 – 689 .
  • Halpern , J. H. , Pope , H. G. Jr. , Sherwood , A. R. , Barry , S. , Hudson , J. I. and Yurgelun-Todd , D. 2004 . Residual neuropsychological effects of illicit 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in individuals with minimal exposure to other drugs . Drug and Alcohol Dependence , 75 : 135 – 147 .
  • Hanson , K. L. and Luciana , M. 2004 . Neurocognitive function in users of MDMA: The importance of clinically significant patterns of use . Psychological Medicine , 34 : 229 – 246 .
  • Hanson , K. L. , Luciana , M. and Sullwold , K. 2008 . Reward-related decision-making deficits and elevated impulsivity among MDMA and other drug users . Drug and Alcohol Dependence , 96 : 99 – 110 .
  • Heffernan , T. M. , Jarvis , H. , Rodgers , J. , Scholey , A. B. and Ling , J. 2001 . Prospective memory, everyday cognitive failure and central executive function in recreational users of Ecstasy . Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental , 16 : 607 – 612 .
  • Huether , G. , Zhou , D. and Rüther , E. 1997 . Causes and consequences of the loss of serotonergic presynapses elicited by the consumption of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, “ecstasy”) and its congeners . Journal of Neural Transmission , 104 : 771 – 794 .
  • Jansma , J. M. , Ramsey , N. F. , Coppola , R. and Kahn , R. S. 2000 . Specific versus nonspecific brain activity in a parametric N-back task . NeuroImage , 12 : 688 – 697 .
  • Kanayama , G. , Rogowska , J. , Pope , H. G. , Gruber , S. A. and Yurgelun-Todd , D. A. 2004 . Spatial working memory in heavy cannabis users: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study . Psychopharmacology , 16 : 16
  • Kendall , P. C. , Hollon , S. D. , Beck , A. T. , Hammen , C. L. and Ingram , R. E. 1987 . Issues and recommendations regarding use of the Beck Depression Inventory . Cognitive Therapy and Research , 11 : 289 – 299 .
  • Krystal , J. H. , Price , L. H. , Opsahl , C. , Ricaurte , G. A. and Heninger , G. R. 1992 . Chronic 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) use: Effects on mood and neuropsychological function? . American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse , 18 ( 3 ) : 331 – 341 .
  • Kwon , L. M. , Rourke , S. B. and Grant , I. 1997 . Intermanual differences on motor and psychomotor tests in alcoholics: No evidence for selective right-hemisphere dysfunction . Perceptual and Motor Skills , 84 : 403 – 414 .
  • Instrument , Lafayette . 1989 . Instruction manual for the 32025 Grooved Pegboard Test , Lafayette, IN : Author .
  • Leung , H. C. , Seelig , D. and Gore , J. C. 2004 . The effect of memory load on cortical activity in the spatial working memory circuit . Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neurosciences , 4 : 553 – 563 .
  • Lew , R. , Sabol , K. E. , Chou , C. , Vosmer , G. L. , Richards , J. and Seiden , L. S. 1996 . Methylenedioxymeth-amphetamine-induced serotonin deficits are followed by partial recovery over a 52-week period. Part II: Radioligand binding and autoradiography studies . The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics , 276 : 855 – 865 .
  • Lezak , M. D. , Howieson , D. B. and Loring , D. W. 2004 . Neuropsychological assessment , 4th , New York : Oxford University Press .
  • Liechti , M. E. , Gamma , A. and Vollenweider , F. X. 2001 . Gender differences in the subjective effects of MDMA . Psychopharmacology , 154 : 161 – 168 .
  • Luciana , M. and Collins , P. F. 1997 . Dopamine modulates working memory for spatial but not object cues in normal humans . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 9 : 330 – 347 .
  • Luciana , M. , Collins , P. F. and Depue , R. A. 1998 . Opposing roles for dopamine and serotonin in the modulation of human spatial working memory functions . Cerebral Cortex , 8 : 218 – 226 .
  • Luciana , M. , Depue , R. A. , Arbisi , P. and Leon , A. 1992 . Facilitation of working memory in humans by a D2 dopamine receptor agonist . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 4 : 58 – 68 .
  • McCann , U. D. , Mertl , M. , Eligulashvili , V. and Ricaurte , G. A. 1999 . Cognitive performance in (±) 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, “ecstasy”) users: A controlled study . Psychopharmacology , 143 : 417 – 425 .
  • McCardle , K. , Luebbers , S. , Carter , J. D. , Croft , R. J. and Stough , C. 2004 . Chronic MDMA (ecstasy) use, cognition and mood . Psychopharmacology , 173 : s434 – s439 .
  • Medina , K. L. , Shear , P. K. and Corcoran , K. 2005 . Ecstasy (MDMA) exposure and neuropsychological functioning: A poly drug perspective . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 11 : 753 – 765 .
  • Moeller , F. G. , Steinberg , J. L. , Lane , S. D. , Buzby , M. , Swann , A. C. Hasan , K. M. 2007 . Diffusion tensor imaging in MDMA users and controls: Association with decision making . American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse , 33 : 777 – 789 .
  • Montgomery , C. , Fisk , J. E. , Newcombe , R. and Murphy , P. N. 2005 . The differential effects of ecstasy/polydrug use on executive components: Shifting, inhibition, updating and access to semantic memory . Psychopharmacology , 182 : 262 – 276 .
  • Morgan , M. J. 1998 . Recreational use of “ecstasy” (MDMA) is associated with elevated impulsivity . Neuropsychopharmacology , 19 ( 4 ) : 252 – 264 .
  • Morgan , M. J. 1999 . Memory deficits associated with recreational use of “ecstasy” (MDMA) . Psychopharmacology , 141 : 30 – 36 .
  • Morgan , M. J. 2000 . Ecstasy (MDMA): A review of its possible persistent psychological effects . Psychopharmacology , 152 : 230 – 248 .
  • Morgan , M. J. , Impallomeni , L. C. , Pirona , A. and Rogers , R. D. 2006 . Elevated impulsivity and impaired decision-making in abstinent ecstasy (MDMA) users compared to poly drug and drug-naïve controls . Neuropsychopharmacology , 31 : 1562 – 1573 .
  • Morgan , M. J. , McFie , L. , Fleetwood , L. H. and Robinson , J. A. 2002 . Ecstasy (MDMA): Are the psychological problems associated with its use reversed by prolonged abstinence? . Psychopharmacology , 159 : 294 – 303 .
  • Padula , C. B. , Schweinsburg , A. D. and Tapert , S. F. 2007 . Spatial working memory performance and fMRI activation interactions in abstinent adolescent marijuana users . Psychology of Addictive Behaviors , 21 : 478 – 487 .
  • Parrott , A. C. 2006 . MDMA in humans: Factors which affect the neuropsychobiological profiles of recreational ecstasy users, the integrative role of bioenergetic stress . Journal of Psychopharmacology , 20 : 147 – 163 .
  • Parrott , A. C. , Lees , A. , Garnham , N. J. , Jones , M. and Wesnes , K. 1998 . Cognitive performance in recreational users of MDMA or “ecstasy”: Evidence for memory deficits . Journal of Psychopharmacology , 12 ( 1 ) : 79 – 83 .
  • Parrott , A. C. , Milani , R. M. , Parmar , R. and Turner , J. J. D. 2001 . Recreational ecstasy/MDMA and other drug users from the UK and Italy: Psychiatric symptoms and psychobiological problems . Outcomes Management , 159 : 77 – 82 .
  • Parsons , O. A. 1987 . “ Neuropsychological consequences of alcohol abuse: Many questions—some answers ” . In Neuropsychology of alcoholism , Edited by: Parsons , O. A. , Butters , N. and Nathan , P. E. 153 – 175 . New York : Guilford Press .
  • Pope , H. G. Jr. , Gruber , A. J. , Hudson , J. I. , Huestis , M. A. and Yurgelun-Todd , D. 2001 . Neuropsychological performance in long term cannabis users . Archives of General Psychiatry , 58 : 909 – 915 .
  • Pope , H. G. Jr. and Yurgelun-Todd , D. 1996 . The residual cognitive effects of heavy marijuana use in college students . JAMA , 275 : 521 – 527 .
  • Quednow , B. B. , Kühn , K. , Hoppe , C. , Westheide , J. , Maier , W. Daum , I. 2007 . Elevated impulsivity and impaired decision-making cognition in heavy users of MDMA (“ecstasy”) . Psychopharmacology , 189 : 517 – 530 .
  • Quickfall , J. and Crockford , D. 2006 . Brain neuroimaging in cannabis use: A review . Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences , 18 : 318 – 332 .
  • Reitan , R. M. and Wolfson , D. 1993 . The Halsted–Reitan neuropsychological test battery: Theory and clinical interpretation , 2nd , Tucson, AZ : Neuropsychology Press .
  • Reneman , L. , Booij , J. , Schmand , B. , van den Brink , W. and Gunning , B. 2000 . Memory disturbances in “Ecstasy” users are correlated with an altered brain serotonin neurotransmission . Psychopharmacology , 148 : 322 – 324 .
  • Reneman , L. , Endert , E. , de Bruin , K. , Lavalaye , J. , Feenstra , M. G. de Wolff , F. A. 2002 . The acute and chronic effects of MDMA (“Ecstasy”) on cortical 5-HT2A receptors in rat and human brain . Neuropsychopharmacology , 26 : 387 – 396 .
  • Reneman , L. , Lavalaye , J. , Schmand , B. , de Wolf , F. A. , van den Brink , W. den Heeten , G. J. 2001 . Cortical serotonin transporter density and verbal memory in individuals who stopped using 3,4-methylendioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or “ecstasy”): Preliminary findings . Archives of General Psychiatry , 58 : 901 – 906 .
  • Rey , A. 1964 . L'examen clinique en psychologie [Clinical assessment in psychology] , Paris : Presses Universitaires de France .
  • Rogers , R. and Robbins , T. W. 2001 . Investigating the neurocognitive deficits associated with chronic drug misuse . Current Opinion in Neurobiology , 11 : 250 – 257 .
  • Roiser , J. P. , Rogers , R. D. , Cook , L. J. and Sahakian , B. J. 2006 . The effect of polymorphism at the serotonin transporter gene on decision-making, memory, and executive function in ecstasy users and controls . Psychopharmacology , 188 : 213 – 227 .
  • Sattler , J. M. 2001 . Assessment of children: Cognitive applications , 4th , La Mesa, CA : Jerome M. Sattler .
  • Schifano , F. , Di Furia , L. , Forza , G. , Minicuci , N. and Bricolo , R. 1998 . MDMA (“ecstasy”) consumption in the context of polydrug abuse: A report on 150 patients . Drug and Alcohol Dependence , 52 : 85 – 90 .
  • Schmidt , C. J. 1987 . Neurotoxicity of the psychedelic amphetamine, methylenedioxymethamphetamine . The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics , 240 ( 1 ) : 1 – 7 .
  • Schweinsburg , A. D. , Schweinsburg , B. C. , Cheung , E. H. , Brown , G. G. , Brown , S. A. and Tapert , S. F. 2005 . fMRI response to spatial working memory in adolescents with comorbid marijuana and alcohol use disorders . Drug and Alcohol Dependence , 79 : 201 – 210 .
  • Simon , N. G. and Mattick , R. P. 2002 . The impact of regular ecstasy use on memory function . Addiction , 97 ( 12 ) : 1523 – 1529 .
  • Solowij , N. , Stephens , R. S. , Roffman , R. A. , Babor , T. , Kadden , R. Miller , M. 2002 . Cognitive functioning of long-term heavy cannabis users seeking treatment . JAMA , 287 : 1123 – 1131 .
  • Sullivan , E. V. and Pfefferbaum , A. 2005 . Neurocircuitry in alcoholism: A substrate of disruption and repair . Psychopharmacology , 180 : 583 – 594 .
  • Sullivan , E. V. , Rosenbloom , M. J. and Pfefferbaum , A. 2000 . Pattern of motor and cognitive deficits in alcoholic men . Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research , 24 : 611 – 621 .
  • Tapert , S. F. and Brown , S. A. 1999 . Neuropsychological correlates of adolescent substance abuse: Four-year outcomes . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 5 : 481 – 493 .
  • Tapert , S. F. , Brown , G. G. , Kindermann , S. S. , Cheung , E. H. , Frank , L. R. and Brown , S. A. 2001 . fMRI measurement of brain dysfunction in alcohol-dependent young women . Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research , 25 : 236 – 245 .
  • Tapert , S. F. , Granholm , E. , Leedy , N. G. and Brown , S. A. 2002 . Substance use and withdrawal: Neuropsychological functioning over 8 years in youth . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 8 : 873 – 883 .
  • Tapert , S. F. , Schweinsburg , A. D. , Barlett , V. C. , Brown , S. A. , Frank , L. R. Brown , G. G. 2004 . Blood oxygen level dependent response and spatial working memory in adolescents with alcohol use disorders . Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research , 28 : 1577 – 1578 .
  • Taylor , E. M. 1959 . Psychological appraisal of children with cerebral deficits , Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press .
  • Thomasius , R. , Peterson , K. , Buchert , R. , Andresen , B. , Zapletalova , P. Wartberg , L. 2003 . Mood, cognition and serotonin transporter availability in current and former ecstasy (MDMA) users . Psychopharmacology , 167 : 85 – 96 .
  • Verbaten , M. N. 2003 . Specific memory deficits in ecstasy users? The results of a meta-analysis . Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental , 18 : 281 – 290 .
  • Verdejo-Garcia , A. , Lopez-Torrecillas , F. , Gimenez , C. O. and Perez-Garcia , M. 2004 . Clinical implications and methodological challenges in the study of the neuropsychological correlates of cannabis, stimulant, and opioid abuse . Neuropsychology Review , 14 : 1 – 41 .
  • Verkes , R. J. , Gijsman , H. J. , Pieters , M. S. M. , Schoemaker , R. C. , de Visser , S. Kuijpers , M. 2001 . Cognitive performance and serotonergic function in users of ecstasy . Psychopharmacology , 153 : 196 – 202 .
  • Vollenweider , F. X. , Gamma , A. , Liechti , M. and Huber , T. 1998 . Psychological and cardiovascular effects and short-term sequelae of MDMA (“Ecstasy”) in MDMA-naïve healthy volunteers . Neuropsychopharmacology , 19 ( 4 ) : 241 – 251 .
  • Wareing , M. , Fisk , J. E. , Murphy , P. and Montgomery , C. 2005 . Visuo-spatial working memory deficits in current and former users of MDMA (“ecstasy”) . Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental , 20 : 115 – 123 .
  • Wareing , M. , Murphy , P. N. and Fisk , J. E. 2004 . Visuospatial memory impairments in users of MDMA (“ecstasy”) . Psychopharmacology , 173 : 391 – 397 .
  • Wechsler , D. 1987 . Wechsler Memory Scale–Revised manual , San Antonio, TX : The Psychological Corporation .
  • Wechsler , D. 1997 . Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Third Edition , San Antonio, TX : The Psychological Corporation, Harcourt Brace & Company .
  • Wegner , A.-J. , Gunthner , A. and Fahle , M. 2001 . Visual performance and recovery in recently detoxified alcoholics . Alcohol & Alcoholism , 36 : 171 – 179 .
  • Wickens , T. D. 2002 . Elementary signal detection theory , New York : Oxford University Press .
  • Yurgelun-Todd , D. A. , Gruber , S. A. and Pope , H. G. Jr. 1996 . Neuropsychological deficits in marijuana smokers . Biological Psychiatry , 39 : 616
  • Zakzanis , K. K. and Young , D. A. 2001 . Memory impairment in abstinent MDMA (“Ecstasy”) users: A longitudinal investigation . Neurology , 56 : 966 – 969 .
  • Zhang , X.-L. , Begleiter , H. and Porjesz , B. 1997 . Is working memory intact in alcoholics? An ERP study . Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging Section , 75 : 75 – 89 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.