710
Views
23
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Computerized analysis of error patterns in digit span recall

, , , , &
Pages 721-734 | Received 12 Aug 2010, Accepted 05 Dec 2010, Published online: 02 Aug 2011

REFERENCES

  • Aaronson , D. 1968 . Temporal courses of perception in an immediate recall task . Journal of Experimental Psychology , 76 : 129 – 140 .
  • Ardila , A. 2007 . Normal aging increases cognitive heterogeneity: Analysis of dispersion in WAIS–III scores across age . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 22 ( 8 ) : 1003 – 1011 .
  • Axelrod , B. N. , Fichtenberg , N. L. , Millis , S. R. and Wertheimer , J. C. 2006 . Detecting incomplete effort with Digit Span from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Third Edition . The Clinical Neuropsychologist , 20 ( 3 ) : 513 – 523 .
  • Babikian , T. , Boone , K. B. , Lu , P. and Arnold , G. 2006 . Sensitivity and specificity of various digit span scores in the detection of suspect effort . The Clinical Neuropsychologist , 20 ( 1 ) : 145 – 159 .
  • Bagiella , E. , Novack , T. A. , Ansel , B. , Diaz-Arrastia , R. , Dikmen , S. Hart , T. 2010 . Measuring outcome in traumatic brain injury treatment trials: Recommendations from the traumatic brain injury clinical trials network . The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation , 25 ( 5 ) : 375 – 382 .
  • Bailey , C. M. , Echemendia , R. J. and Arnett , P. A. 2006 . The impact of motivation on neuropsychological performance in sports-related mild traumatic brain injury . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 12 ( 4 ) : 475 – 484 .
  • Benton , A. L. 1962 . The visual retention test as a constructional praxis task . Confinia Neurologica , 22 : 141 – 155 .
  • Bianchini , K. J. , Greve , K. W. and Love , J. M. 2003 . Definite malingered neurocognitive dysfunction in moderate/severe traumatic brain injury . The Clinical Neuropsychologist , 17 ( 4 ) : 574 – 580 .
  • Bjork , E. L. and Healy , A. F. 1974 . Short-term order and item retention . Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior , 13 : 80 – 97 .
  • Blanchard , E. B. , Jones-Alexander , J. , Buckley , T. C. and Forneris , C. A. 1996 . Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist (PCL) . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 34 ( 8 ) : 669 – 673 .
  • Brown , M. B. 1975 . A method for combining non-independent, one-sided tests of significance . Biometrics , 31 ( 4 ) : 987 – 992 .
  • Bunting , M. F. , Cowan , N. and Colflesh , G. H. 2008 . The deployment of attention in short-term memory tasks: Trade-offs between immediate and delayed deployment . Memory & Cognition , 36 ( 4 ) : 799 – 812 .
  • Burgess , A. and Hitch , G. J. 1992 . Toward a network model of the articulatory loop . Journal of Memory & Language , 31 : 429 – 460 .
  • Burkart , M. , Heun , R. and Benkert , O. 1998 . Serial position effects in dementia of the Alzheimer type . Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders , 9 ( 3 ) : 130 – 136 .
  • Cameron , P. J. 1999 . Permutation groups , Cambridge, UK : Cambridge University Press .
  • Capitani , E. , Della Sala , S. , Logie , R. H. and Spinnler , H. 1992 . Recency, primacy, and memory: Reappraising and standardising the serial position curve . Cortex , 28 ( 3 ) : 315 – 342 .
  • Chan , R. C. 2002 . Attentional deficits in patients with persisting postconcussive complaints: A general deficit or specific component deficit? . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 24 ( 8 ) : 1081 – 1093 .
  • Cicerone , K. D. and Azulay , J. 2002 . Diagnostic utility of attention measures in postconcussion syndrome . The Clinical Neuropsychologist , 16 ( 3 ) : 280 – 289 .
  • Conklin , H. M. , Salorio , C. F. and Slomine , B. S. 2008 . Working memory performance following paediatric traumatic brain injury . Brain Injury , 22 ( 11 ) : 847 – 857 .
  • Conrad , R. 1965 . Order error in immediate recall of sequences . Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior , 4 : 161 – 169 .
  • Curtis , K. L. , Greve , K. W. and Bianchini , K. J. 2009 . The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–III and malingering in traumatic brain injury: Classification accuracy in known groups . Assessment , 16 ( 4 ) : 401 – 414 .
  • Curtiss , G. , Vanderploeg , R. D. , Spencer , J. and Salazar , A. M. 2001 . Patterns of verbal learning and memory in traumatic brain injury . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 7 ( 5 ) : 574 – 585 .
  • Dean , A. C. , Victor , T. L. , Boone , K. B. , Philpott , L. M. and Hess , R. A. 2009 . Dementia and effort test performance . The Clinical Neuropsychologist , 23 ( 1 ) : 133 – 152 .
  • Estes , W. K. 1972 . “ An associative basis for coding and organisation in memory ” . In Coding processes in human memory , Edited by: Metlon , A. W. and Martin , E. 161 – 190 . Washington, DC : Winston & Sons .
  • Fisher , H. L. and Rose , D. 2005 . Comparison of the effectiveness of two versions of the Rey memory test in discriminating between actual and simulated memory impairment, with and without the addition of a standard memory test . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 27 ( 7 ) : 840 – 858 .
  • Fork , M. , Bartels , C. , Ebert , A. D. , Grubich , C. , Synowitz , H. and Wallesch , C. W. 2005 . Neuropsychological sequelae of diffuse traumatic brain injury . Brain Injury , 19 ( 2 ) : 101 – 108 .
  • Fuchs , A. 1969 . Recall for order and content of serial word lists in short-term memory . Journal of Experimental Psychology , 82 : 14 – 21 .
  • Gibson , A. J. 1981 . A further analysis of memory loss in dementia and depression in the elderly . The British Journal of Clinical Psychology , 20 ( 3 ) : 179 – 185 .
  • Gillam , R. B. , Cowan , N. and Day , L. S. 1995 . Sequential memory in children with and without language impairment . Journal of Speech and Hearing Research , 38 ( 2 ) : 393 – 402 .
  • Gillam , R. B. , Cowan , N. and Marler , J. A. 1998 . Information processing by school-age children with specific language impairment: Evidence from a modality effect paradigm . Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research , 41 ( 4 ) : 913 – 926 .
  • Green , P. , Allen , L. and Astner , K. 1997 . The Word Memory Test: A manual for the oral and computerized forms , Durham, NC : CogniSyst .
  • Greiffenstein , M. F. and Baker , W. J. 2008 . Validity testing in dually diagnosed post-traumatic stress disorder and mild closed head injury . The Clinical Neuropsychologist , 22 ( 3 ) : 565 – 582 .
  • Greiffenstein , M. F. , Baker , W. J. and Gola , T. 1994 . Validation of malingered amnesia measures with a large clinical sample . Psychological Assessment , 6 ( 3 ) : 218 – 224 .
  • Greve , K. W. , Springer , S. , Bianchini , K. J. , Black , F. W. , Heinly , M. T. Love , J. M. 2007 . Malingering in toxic exposure: Classification accuracy of reliable digit span and WAIS–III Digit Span scaled scores . Assessment , 14 ( 1 ) : 12 – 21 .
  • Gusfield , D. 1997 . Algorithms on strings, trees, and sequences: Computer science and computational biology , Cambridge, UK : Cambridge University Press .
  • Healy , A. F. 1974 . Separating item from order information in short-term memory . Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior , 13 : 644 – 655 .
  • Heinly , M. T. , Greve , K. W. , Bianchini , K. J. , Love , J. M. and Brennan , A. 2005 . WAIS digit span-based indicators of malingered neurocognitive dysfunction: Classification accuracy in traumatic brain injury . Assessment , 12 ( 4 ) : 429 – 444 .
  • Helland , T. and Asbjornsen , A. 2004 . Digit span in dyslexia: Variations according to language comprehension and mathematics skills . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 26 ( 1 ) : 31 – 42 .
  • Henson , R. N. 1998 . Short-term memory for serial order: The Start–End Model . Cognitive Psychology , 36 ( 2 ) : 73 – 137 .
  • Iverson , G. L. and Franzen , M. D. 1994 . The Recognition Memory Test, Digit Span, and Knox Cube Test as markers of malingered memory impairment . Assessment , 1 : 323 – 334 .
  • Iverson , G. L. and Franzen , M. D. 1996 . Using multiple objective memory procedures to detect simulated malingering . Journal of Clinical & Experimental Neuropsychology , 18 ( 1 ) : 38 – 51 .
  • Iverson , G. L. , Franzen , M. D. and McCracken , L. M. 1991 . Evaluation of a standardized instrument for the detection of malingered memory deficits . Law and Human Behavior , 15 : 667 – 676 .
  • Iverson , G. L. and Tulsky , D. S. 2003 . Detecting malingering on the WAIS–III. Unusual Digit Span performance patterns in the normal population and in clinical groups . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 18 ( 1 ) : 1 – 9 .
  • Jurden , F. H. , Laipple , J. S. and Jones , K. T. 1993 . Age differences in memory-span errors: Speed or inhibitory mechanisms? . The Journal of Genetic Psychology , 154 ( 2 ) : 249 – 257 .
  • Kemtes , K. A. and Allen , D. N. 2008 . Presentation modality influences WAIS Digit Span performance in younger and older adults . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 30 ( 6 ) : 661 – 665 .
  • Kersel , D. A. , Marsh , N. V. , Havill , J. H. and Sleigh , J. W. 2001 . Neuropsychological functioning during the year following severe traumatic brain injury . Brain Injury , 15 ( 4 ) : 283 – 296 .
  • Kessels , R. P. , van den Berg , E. , Ruis , C. and Brands , A. M. 2008 . The backward span of the Corsi Block-Tapping Task and its association with the WAIS–III Digit Span . Assessment , 15 ( 4 ) : 426 – 434 .
  • Kramer , J. H. , Jurik , J. , Sha , S. J. , Rankin , K. P. , Rosen , H. J. Johnson , J. K. 2003 . Distinctive neuropsychological patterns in frontotemporal dementia, semantic dementia, and Alzheimer disease . Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology , 16 ( 4 ) : 211 – 218 .
  • Lamar , M. , Price , C. C. , Libon , D. J. , Penney , D. L. , Kaplan , E. Grossman , M. 2007 . Alterations in working memory as a function of leukoaraiosis in dementia . Neuropsychologia , 45 ( 2 ) : 245 – 254 .
  • Larrabee , G. J. 2003 . Detection of malingering using atypical performance patterns on standard neuropsychological tests . The Clinical Neuropsychologist , 17 ( 3 ) : 410 – 425 .
  • Lee , C. L. and Estes , W. K. 1977 . Order and position information in primary memory for letter strings . Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior , 16 : 395 – 418 .
  • Massman , P. J. , Delis , D. C. and Butters , N. 1993 . Does impaired primacy recall equal impaired long term storage? Serial position effects in Huntington's disease and Alzheimer's disease . Developmental Neuropsychology , 9 : 1 – 15 .
  • McNicol , D. 1971 . The confusion of order in short-term memory . Australian Journal of Psychology , 23 ( 1 ) : 77 – 84 .
  • Miller , L. J. , Ryan , J. J. , Carruthers , C. A. and Cluff , R. B. 2004 . Brief screening indexes for malingering: A confirmation of Vocabulary minus Digit Span from the WAIS–III and the Rarely Missed Index from the WMS–III . The Clinical Neuropsychologist , 18 ( 2 ) : 327 – 333 .
  • Mittenberg , W. , Theroux-Fichera , S. , Zielinski , R. E. and Heilbronner , R. 1995 . Identification of malingered head injury on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Revised . Professional Psychology: Research and Practice , 26 : 491 – 498 .
  • O'Caroll , R. E. and Gilleard , C. J. 1986 . Estimation of premorbid intelligence in dementia . British Journal of Clinical Psychology , 25 ( 2 ) : 157 – 158 .
  • Page , M. P. and Norris , D. 1998 . The primacy model: A new model of immediate serial recall . Psychological Review , 105 ( 4 ) : 761 – 781 .
  • Pebler , P. 2011 . Presentation software , Albany, CA : NeuroBehavioral Systems, Inc .
  • Richardson , J. T. 2007 . Measures of short-term memory: A historical review . Cortex , 43 ( 5 ) : 635 – 650 .
  • Rundus , D. and Atkinson , R. C. 1970 . Rehearsal processes in free recall: A procedure for direct observation . Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior , 9 : 99 – 105 .
  • Ruocco , A. C. , Swirsky-Sacchetti , T. , Chute , D. L. , Mandel , S. , Platek , S. M. and Zillmer , E. A. 2008 . Distinguishing between neuropsychological malingering and exaggerated psychiatric symptoms in a neuropsychological setting . The Clinical Neuropsychologist , 22 ( 3 ) : 547 – 564 .
  • Schwarz , L. R. , Gfeller , J. D. and Oliveri , M. V. 2006 . Detecting feigned impairment with the digit span and vocabulary subtests of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Third Edition . The Clinical Neuropsychologist , 20 ( 4 ) : 741 – 753 .
  • Shapiro , A. M. , Benedict , R. H. , Schretlen , D. and Brandt , J. 1999 . Construct and current validity of the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test–Revised . Clinical Neuropsychology , 13 ( 3 ) : 348 – 358 .
  • Shum , D. H. , O'Gorman , J. G. and Alpar , A. 2004 . Effects of incentive and preparation time on performance and classification accuracy of standard and malingering-specific memory tests . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 19 ( 6 ) : 817 – 823 .
  • Slick , D. J. , Hopp , G. , Strauss , E. and Thompson , G. 1997 . The Victoria Symptom Validity Test , Odessa, FL : PAR .
  • Strauss , E. , Slick , D. J. , Levy-Bencheton , J. , Hunter , M. , MacDonald , S. W. and Hultsch , D. F. 2002 . Intraindividual variability as an indicator of malingering in head injury . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 17 ( 5 ) : 423 – 444 .
  • Tombaugh , T. N. 1996 . Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) , San Antonio, TX : PsychCorp .
  • Trueblood , W. 1994 . Qualitative and quantitative characteristics of malingered and other invalid WAIS–R and clinical memory data . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 16 ( 4 ) : 597 – 607 .
  • Vagnini , V. L. , Sollman , M. J. , Berry , D. T. , Granacher , R. P. , Clark , J. A. Burton , R. 2006 . Known-groups cross-validation of the letter memory test in a compensation-seeking mixed neurologic sample . The Clinical Neuropsychologist , 20 ( 2 ) : 289 – 304 .
  • Warschausky , S. , Kewman , D. G. and Selim , A. 1996 . Attentional performance of children with traumatic brain injury: A quantitative and qualitative analysis of digit span . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 11 ( 2 ) : 147 – 153 .
  • Wechsler , D. 1997a . Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–administration and scoring manual , 3rd , San Antonio, TX : The Psychological Corporation .
  • Wechsler , D. 1997b . Wechsler Memory Scale–administration and scoring manual , 3rd , San Antonio, TX : The Psychological Corporation .
  • West , L. K. , Curtis , K. L. , Greve , K. W. and Bianchini , K. J. 2010 . Memory in traumatic brain injury: The effects of injury severity and effort on the Wechsler Memory Scale–III . Journal of Neuropsychology. ,
  • Whitney , K. A. , Davis , J. J. , Shepard , P. H. , Bertram , D. M. and Adams , K. M. 2009 . Digit span age scaled score in middle-aged military veterans: Is it more closely associated with TOMM failure than reliable digit span? . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 24 ( 3 ) : 263 – 272 .
  • Wilson , B. A. , Watson , P. C. , Baddeley , A. D. , Emslie , H. and Evans , J. J. 2000 . Improvement or simply practice? The effects of twenty repeated assessments on people with and without brain injury . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 6 ( 4 ) : 469 – 479 .
  • Woods , D. L. , Kishiyama , M. M. , Yund , E. W. , Herron , T. J. , Edwards , B. Poliva , O. 2010 . Improving digit span assessment of short-term verbal memory . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 33 , : 101 – 111 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.