876
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

Effects of physical activity on delayed memory measures in randomized controlled trials with nonclinical older, mild cognitive impairment, and dementia participants

Pages 874-886 | Received 20 Dec 2017, Accepted 05 Feb 2018, Published online: 06 Mar 2018

References

  • Aimone, J. B., Li, Y., Lee, S. W., Clemenson, G. D., Deng, W., & Gage, F. H. (2014). Regulation and function of adult neurogenesis: From genes to cognition. Physiological Reviews, 94, 991–1026.
  • Albert, M. S., Dekosky, S. T., Dickson, D., Dubois, B., Feldman, H. H., Fox, N. C., & Phelps, C. H. (2011). The diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment due to Alzheimer’s disease: Recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 7, 270–279.
  • Ally, B. A., Hussey, E. P., Ko, P. C., & Molitor, R. J. (2013). Pattern separation and pattern completion in Alzheimer’s disease: Evidence of rapid forgetting in amnestic mild cognitive impairment. Hippocampus, 23, 1246–1258.
  • Altman, J. (1962). Are new neurons formed in the brains of adult mammals? Science, 135, 1127–1128.
  • Alves, C. R., Merege Filho, C. A., Benatti, F. B., Brucki, S., Pereira, R. M., de Sa Pinto, A. L., & Gualano, B. (2013). Creatine supplementation associated or not with strength training upon emotional and cognitive measures in older women: A randomized double-blind study. PLoS One, 8, e76301.
  • Angelucci, F., Spalletta, G., di Iulio, F., Ciaramella, A., Salani, F., Varsi, A. E., & Bossù, P. (2010). Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) and Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) patients are characterized by increased BDNF serum levels. Current Alzheimer Research, 7, 15–20.
  • Antunes, H. K. M., de Mello, M. T., de Aquino Lemos, V., Santos-Galduróz, R. F., Galdieri, L. C., Bueno, O. F. A., & D’Almeida, V. (2015). Aerobic physical exercise improved the cognitive function of elderly males but did not modify their blood homocysteine levels. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders Extra, 5, 13–24.
  • Antunes, H. K. M., Santos-Galduróz, R. F., de Aquino Lemos, V., Bueno, O. F. A., Rzezak, P., de Santana, M. G., & de Mello, M. T. (2015). The influence of physical exercise and leisure activity on neuropsychological functioning in older adults. Age, 37, 71.
  • Baker, L. D., Frank, L. L., Foster-Schubert, K., Green, P. S., Wilkinson, C. W., McTiernan, A., & Craft, S. (2010). Effects of aerobic exercise on mild cognitive impairment: A controlled trial. Archives of Neurology, 67, 71–79.
  • Barha, C. K., Davis, J. C., Falck, R. S., Nagamatsu, L. S., & Liu-Ambrose, T. (2017). Sex differences in exercise efficacy to improve cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials in older humans. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 46, 71–85.
  • Barnes, D. E., Santos-Modesitt, W., Poelke, G., Kramer, A. F., Castro, C., Middleton, L. E., & Yaffe, K. (2013). The mental activity and eXercise (MAX) trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, Internal Medicine, 173, 797–804.
  • Barnes, D. E., & Yaffe, K. (2011). The projected effect of risk factor reduction in Alzheimer’s disease prevalence. Lancet Neurology, 10, 819–828.
  • Best, J. R., Chiu, B. K., Hsu, C. L., Nagamatsu, L. S., & Liu-Ambrose, T. (2015). Long-term effects of resistance exercise training on cognition and brain volume in older women: Results from a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 21, 745–756.
  • Briley, D., Ghirardi, V., Woltjer, R., Renck, A., Zolochevska, O., Taglialatela, G., & Micci, M. A. (2016). Preserved neurogenesis in non-demented individuals with AD neuropathology. Science Reports, 6, 27812.
  • Brown, A. K., Lui-Ambrose, T., Tate, R., & Lord, S. R. (2009). The effect of group-based exercise on cognitive performance and mood in seniors residing in intermediate care and self-care retirement facilities: A randomized controlled trial. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 43, 608–614.
  • Buckman, A. S., Boyle, P. A., Yu, L., Shah, R. C., Wilson, R. S., & Bennett, D. A. (2012). Total daily physical activity and the risk of AD and cognitive decline in older adults. Neurology, 78, 1323–1329.
  • Buckman, A. S., Yu, L., Boyle, P. A., Schneider, J. A., de Jager, P. L., & Bennett, D. A. (2016). Higher brain BDNF gene expression is associated with slower cognitive decline in older adults. Neurology, 86, 735–741.
  • Budde, M. D., Xie, M., Cross, A. H., & Song, S.-K. (2009). Axial diffusivity is the primary correlate of axonal injury in the EAE spinal cord: A quantitative pixelwise analysis. Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 2805–2813.
  • Calsolaro, V., & Edison, P. (2016). Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s disease: Current evidence and future directions. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 12, 719–732.
  • Campbell, S., Marriott, M., Nahmias, C., & MacQueen, G. M. (2004). Lower hippocampal volume in patients suffering from depression: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 589–607.
  • Cermak, L. S., & Butters, N. (1972). The role of interference and encoding in the short-term memory deficits of Korsakoff patients. Neuropsychologia, 10, 89–96.
  • Cheng, S.-T., Chow, P. K., Song, Y. Q., Yu, E. C. S., Chan, A. C. M., Lee, T. M., & Lam, J. H. M. (2014). Mental and physical activities delay cognitive decline in older persons with dementia. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 22, 63–74.
  • Chieffi, S., Messina, G., Villano, I., Messina, A., Valenzano, A., Moscatelli, F., & Monda, M. (2017). Neuroprotective effects of physical activity: Evidence from human and animal studies. Frontiers in Neurology, 8, 188.
  • Clarke, J. M. (1994). Neuroanatomy: Brain structure and function. In D. W. Zaidel (Ed.), Neuropsychology (pp. 29–52). New York, NY: Academic Press.
  • Colcombe, S. J., Erickson, K. I., Scalf, P. E., Kim, J. S., Prakash, R., McAuley, E., & Kramer, A. F. (2006). Aerobic exercise training increases brain volume in aging humans. Journal of Gerontology, Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 61A, 1166–1170.
  • Cotman, C. W., & Berchtold, N. C. (2002). Exercise: A behavioral intervention to enhance brain health and plasticity. Trends in Neuroscience, 25, 295–301.
  • Eggermont, L. H. P., Swaab, D. F., Hol, E. M., & Scherder, E. J. A. (2009). Walking the line: A randomised trial on the effects of a short term walking programme on cognition in dementia. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 80, 802–804.
  • Ellwood-Lowe, M., Humphreys, K., Sacchet, M., Camacho, M. C., Ordaz, S., & Gotlib, I. (2017). Perceived social standing predicts hippocampal volume over and above the effects of income. Biological Psychiatry, 81, S188.
  • Erickson, K. I., Leckie, R. L., & Weinstein, A. M. (2014). Physical activity, fitness, and gray matter volume. Neurobiology of Aging, 35, S20–S28.
  • Erickson, K. I., Voss, M. W., Prakash, R. S., Basak, C., Szabo, A., Chaddock, L., & Kramer, A. F. (2011). Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 108, 3017–3022.
  • Erickson, K. I., Weinstein, A. M., & Lopez, O. L. (2012). Physical activity, brain plasticity, and Alzheimers’s disease. Archives of Medical Research, 43, 615–621.
  • Eriksson, P. S., Perfilieva, E., Bjork-Eriksson, T., Alborn, A. M., Nordberg, C., Peterson, D. A., & Gage, F. H. (1998). Neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus. Nature Medicine, 4, 1313–1317.
  • Faria, M. C., Gonçalves, G. S., Rocha, N. P., Moraes, E. N., Bicalho, M. A., Cintra, M. T. G., … Souza, L. P. (2014). Increased plasma levels of BDNF and inflammatory markers in Alzheimer disease. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 53, 166–172.
  • Ferreira, L., Tanaka, K., Santos-Galduróz, R. F., & Galduróz, J. C. (2015). Respiratory training as strategy to prevent cognitive decline in aging: A randomized controlled trial. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 10, 593–603.
  • Forbes, D., Forbes, S. C., Blake, C. M., Thiessen, E. J., & Forbes, S. (2015). Exercise programs for people with dementia. Cochrane Database System Review, 4, CD006489.
  • Franceschi, C., & Campisi, J. (2014). Chronic inflammation (inflammaging) and its potential contribution to age-associated diseases. Journal Of Gerontology, Series A: Biological Sciences And Medical Sciences, 69, S4–S9.
  • Gasquoine, P. G. (2011). Cognitive impairment in common, noncentral nervous system medical conditions of adults and the elderly. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33, 486–496.
  • Gates, N., Singh, M. A. F., Sachdev, P. S., & Valenzuela, M. (2013). The effect of exercise training on cognitive function in older adults with mild cognitive impairment: A meta- analysis of randomized controlled trials. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 21, 1086–1097.
  • Gleeson, M., Bishop, N. C., Stensel, D. J., Lindley, M. R., Mastana, S. S., & Nimmo, M. A. (2011). The anti-inflammatory effects of exercise: Mechanisms and implications for the prevention and treatment of disease. Nature Reviews Immunology, 11, 607–615.
  • Graves, A. B., Mortimer, J. A., Bowen, J. D., McCormick, W. C., McCurry, S. M., Schellenberg, J. D., & Larson, E. B. (2001). Head circumference and incident Alzheimer’s disease: Modification by apolipoprotein E. Neurology, 57, 1453–1460.
  • Green, M. J., Matheson, S. L., Shepherd, A., Weickert, C. S., & Carr, V. J. (2011). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels in schizophrenia: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Molecular Psychiatry, 16, 960–972.
  • Groot, C., Hooghiemstra, A. M., Raijmakers, P. G. H. M., von Berchel, B. N. M., Scheltens, P., Scherder, E. J. A., & Ossenkoppele, R. (2016). The effect of physical activity on cognitive function in patients with dementia: A meta-analysis of randomized control trials. Ageing Research Reviews, 25, 13–23.
  • Hamer, M., & Chida, Y. (2009). Physical activity and risk of neurodegenerative disease: A systematic review of prospective evidence. Psychological Medicine, 39, 3–11.
  • Harrisberger, F., Smieskova, R., Schmidt, A., Lenz, C., Walter, A., Wittfeld, K., & Borgwordt, S. (2015). BDNF Val66Met polymorphism and hippocampal volume in neuropsychiatric disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 55, 107–118.
  • Head, D., Singh, T., & Bugg, J. M. (2012). The moderating role of exercise on stress-related effects on the hippocampus and memory in later adulthood. Neuropsychology, 26, 133–143.
  • Heneka, M. T., Carson, M. J., El Khoury, J., Landreth, G. E., Brosseron, F., Feinstein, D. L., & Kummer, M. P. (2015). Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s disease. Lancet Neurology, 14, 388–405.
  • Hess, N. C. L., Dieberg, G., McFarlane, J. R., & Smart, N. A. (2014). The effect of exercise intervention on cognitive performance in persons at risk of, or with, dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Healthy Aging Research, 3, 1–10.
  • Hokkanen, L., Rantala, L., Remes, A. M., Härkönen, B., Viramo, P., & Winblad, I. (2008). Dance and movement therapeutic methods in management of dementia: A randomized, controlled study. Journal of the American Geriatric Society, 56, 771–772.
  • Honea, R. A., Cruchaga, C., Perea, R. D., Sayhin, A. J., Burns, J. M., Weinberger, D. R., & Goate, A. M. (2013). Characterizing the role of brain derived neurotrophic factor genetic variation in Alzheimer’s disease neurodegeneration. PLoS One, 8, e76001.
  • Hu, J. P., Guo, Y.-H., Wang, F., Zhao, X.-P., Zhang, Q.-H., & Song, Q.-H. (2014). Exercise improves cognitive function in aging patients. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, 7, 3144–3149.
  • Ijuin, M., Sugiyama, M., Sakuma, N., Inagaki, H., Miyamae, F., Ito, K., & Awata, S. (2013). Walking exercise and cognitive functions in community-dwelling older adults: Preliminary results of a randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Geriatric Psychology, 28, 109–110.
  • Jack, C. R., Knopman, D. S., Jagust, W. J., Petersen, R. C., Weiner, M. W., Aisen, P. S., … Trojanowski, J. Q. (2013). Tracking pathophysiological processes in Alzheimer’s disease: An updated hypothetical model of dynamic biomarkers. Lancet Neurology, 12, 207–216.
  • Jack, C. R., Jr., Petersen, R. C., Xu, Y., O’brian, P. C., Smith, G. E., Ivnik, R. J., & Kokmen, E. (2000). Rates of hippocampal atrophy correlate with change in clinical status in aging and AD. Neurology, 55, 484–489.
  • Jonasson, L. S., Nyberg, L., Kramer, A. F., Lundquist, A., Riklund, K., & Boraxbekk, C.-J. (2016). Aerobic exercise intervention, cognitive performance, and brain structure: Results from the Physical Influences on Brain in Aging (PHIBRA) Study. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 8, Article 336.
  • Kelly, M. E., Loughrey, D., Lawlor, B. A., Robertson, I. H., Walsh, C., & Brennan, S. (2014). The impact of exercise on the cognitive functioning of healthy older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ageing Research Reviews, 16, 12–31.
  • Kempermann, G., Song, H., & Gage, F. H. (2015). Neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology, 7, a018812.
  • Khan, U. A., Liu, L., Provenzano, F. A., Berman, D. E., Profaci, C. P., Sloan, R., & Small, S. A. (2014). Molecular drivers and cortical spread of lateral entorhinal cortex dysfunction in preclinical Alzheimer’s disease. Nature Neuroscience, 17, 304–311.
  • Klusmann, V., Evers, A., Schwarzer, R., Schlattmann, P., Reischies, F. M., Heuser, I., & Dimeo, F. C. (2010). Complex mental and physical activity in older women and cognitive performance: A 6-month randomized controlled trial. Journal of Gerontology, Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 65A, 680–688.
  • Knaepen, K., Goekint, M., Heyman, E. M., & Meeusen, R. (2010). Neuroplasticity – Exercise- induced response of peripheral brain-derived neurotrophic factor: A systematic review of experimental studies in human subjects. Sports Medicine, 40, 765–801.
  • Knoth, R., Singec, I., Ditter, M., Pantazis, G., Capetian, P., Meyer, R. P., & Kempermann, G. (2010). Murine features of neurogenesis in the human hippocampus across the lifespan from 0 to 100 years. PloS One, 5, e8809.
  • Komulainen, P., Kivipelto, M., Lakka, T. A., Savonen, K., Hassinen, M., Kiviniemi, V., & Rauramaa, R. (2010). Exercise, fitness and cognition – A randomized controlled trial in older individuals: The DR’s EXTRA study. European Geriatric Medicine, 1, 266–272.
  • Krech, D., Rozenzweig, M. R., & Bennett, E. L. (1960). Effects of environmental complexity and training on brain chemistry. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 53, 509–519.
  • Lam, L. C. W., Chan, W. C., Leung, T., Fung, A. W. T., & Leung, E. M. (2015). Would older adults with mild cognitive impairment adhere to and benefit from a structured lifestyle activity intervention to enhance cognition? A cluster randomized controlled trial. PLoS One, 10, e0118173.
  • Lam, L. C. W., Chau, R. C. M., Wong, B. M. L., Fung, A. W. T., Tam, C. W. C., Leung, G. T. Y., & Chan, W. M. (2012). A 1-year randomized controlled trial comparing mind body exercise (Tai Chi) with stretching and toning exercise on cognitive function in older Chinese adults at risk of cognitive decline. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 13, 568e15–e20.
  • Lancaster, M. A., Seidenberg, M., Smith, J. C., Nielson, K. A., Woodard, J. L., Durgerian, S., & Rao, S. M. (2016). Diffusion tensor imaging predictors of episodic memory decline in healthy elders at genetic risk for Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 22, 1005–1015.
  • Laske, C., Stransky, E., Leyhe, T., Eschweiler, G. W., Maetzler, W., Wittorf, A., & Schott, K. (2007). BDNF serum and CSF concentrations in Alzheimer’s disease, normal pressure hydrocephalus and healthy controls. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 41, 387–394.
  • Lautenschlager, N. T., Cox, K. L., Flicker, L., Foster, J. K., van Bockxmeer, F. M., Xiao, J., & Almeida, O. P. (2008). Effect of physical activity on cognitive function in older adults at risk for Alzheimer disease: A randomized trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 300, 1027–1037.
  • Lewin, R. (1980). Is your brain really necessary? Science, 210, 1232–1234.
  • Lim, Y., Zhong, J. H., & Zhou, X. F. (2015). Development of mature BDNF-specific sandwich ELISA. Journal of Neurochemistry, 134, 75–85.
  • Maass, A., Düzel, S., Goerke, M., Becke, A., Sobieray, U., Neumann, K., & Düzel, E. (2015). Vascular hippocampal plasticity after aerobic exercise in older adults. Molecular Psychiatry, 20, 585–593.
  • Maki, Y., Ura, C., Yamaguchi, T., Murai, T., Isahai, M., Kaiho, A., & Yamaguchi, H. (2012). Effects of intervention using a community-based walking program for prevention of mental decline: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Geriatric Society, 60, 505–510.
  • Makizako, H., Liu-Ambrose, T., Shimada, H., Doi, T., Park, H., Tsutsumimoto, K., & Suzuki, T. (2015). Moderate-intensity physical activity, hippocampal volume, and memory in older adults with mild cognitive impairment. Journal of Gerontology, Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 70A, 480–486.
  • Mathias, S. R., Knowles, E. E. M., Kent, J. W., Jr., McKay, D. R., Curran, J. E., de Almeida, M. A. A., & Glahn, D. C. (2016). Recurrent major depression and right hippocampal volume: A bivariate linkage and association study. Human Brain Mapping, 37, 191–202.
  • Mattson, M. P. (2012). Evolutionary aspects of human exercise-Born to run purposefully. Ageing Research Reviews, 11, 347–352.
  • McDaniel, M. A. (2005). Big-brained people are smarter: A meta-analysis of the relationship between in vivo brain volume and intelligence. Intelligence, 33, 337–346.
  • Mickes, L., Wixted, J. T., Fenema-Notestine, C., Galasko, D., Bondi, M. W., Thal, L. J., & Salmon, D. P. (2007). Progressive impairment on neuropsychological tasks in a longitudinal study of preclinical Alzheimer’s disease. Neuropsychology, 21, 696–705.
  • Mitchell, A. J., & Shiri-Feshki, M. (2009). Rate of progression of mild cognitive impairment to dementia — Meta-analysis of 41 robust inception cohort studies. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 119, 252–265.
  • Molendijk, M. L., Spinhoven, P., Polak, M., Bus, B. A. A., Penninx, B. W. J. H., & Elzinga, B. M. (2014). Serum BDNF concentrations as peripheral manifestations of depression: Evidence from a systematic review and meta-analyses on 179 associations (N = 9,484). Molecular Psychiatry, 19, 791–800.
  • Molloy, D. W., McLaughlin, J. S., de la Querriere Richardson, L., & Crilly, R. G. (1988). The effects of a three-month exercise programme on neuropsychological function in elderly institutionalized women: A randomized controlled trial. Age and Ageing, 17, 303–310.
  • Mortimer, J. A., Ding, D., Borenstein, A. R., Decarli, C., Guo, Q., Wu, Y., & Chu, S. (2012). Changes in brain volume and cognition in a randomized trial of exercise and social interaction in a community-based sample of non-demented Chinese elders. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 28, 757–766.
  • Nagamatsu, L. S., Chan, A., Davis, J. C., Beattie, B. L., Graf, P., Voss, M. W., & Liu-Ambrose, T. (2013). Physical activity improves verbal and spatial memory in older adults with probable mild cognitive impairment: A 6-month randomized controlled trial. Journal of Aging Research, 2013, 1–10.
  • Ng, K. S. T., Ho, C. S., Wilson, T., Kua, E. H., & Ho, R. C.-M. (2016). Serum brain-derived neurotrophic factos (BDNF) levels in patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD), individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and healthy controls: A systematic review, meta- analysis, and meta-regression. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 12, 1181.
  • Niemann, C., Godde, B., & Voelcker-Rehage, C. (2014). Not only cardiovascular, but also coordinate exercise increases hippocampal volume in older adults. Frontiers in Aging Euroscience, 6, Article 170.
  • Numakawa, T., Suzuki, S., Kumamaru, E., Adachi, N., Richards, M., & Kunugi, H. (2010). BDNF function and intracellular signaling in neurons. Histology and Histopathology, 25, 237–258.
  • O’Bryant, S. E., Hobson, V., Hall, J. R., Waring, S. C., Chan, W., Massman, P., & Diaz-Arrastia, R. (2009). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels in Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 17, 337–341.
  • Passingham, R. E. (1979). Brain size and intelligence in man. Brain, Behavior and Evolution, 16, 253–270.
  • Pereira, A. C., Huddleston, D. E., Brickman, A. M., Sosunov, A. A., Hen, R., McKhann, G. M., & Small, S. A. (2007). An in vivo correlate of exercise-induced neurogenesis in the adult dendate gyrus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 104, 5638–5643.
  • Pietschnig, J., Penke, L., Wicherts, J. M., Zeiler, M., & Voracek, M. (2015). Meta-analysis of associations between human brain volume and intelligence differences: How strong are they and what do they mean? Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 57, 411–432.
  • Plassman, B. L., Williams, J. W., Burke, J. R., Holsinger, T., & Benjamin, S. (2010). Systematic review: Factors associated with risk for and possible prevention of cognitive decline in later life. Annals of Internal Medicine, 153, 182–193.
  • Reiter, K., Nielson, K. A., Smith, T. J., Weiss, L. R., Alfini, A. J., & Smith, J. C. (2015). Improved cardiorespiratory fitness is associated with increased cortical thickness in mild cognitive impairment. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 21, 757–767.
  • Ruigrok, A. N. V., Salim-Khorshidi, G., Lai, M.-C., Baron-Cohen, S., Lombardo, M. V., Tait, R. J., & Suckling, J. (2014). A meta-analysis of sex differences in human brain structure. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 39, 34–50.
  • Ruscheweyh, R., Willemer, C., Krüger, K., Duning, T., Warnecke, T., Sommer, J., & Flöel, A. (2011). Physical activity and memory functions: An interventional study. Neurobiology of Aging, 32, 1304–1319.
  • Scherder, E. J. A., van Paasschen, J., Deijen, J.-B., van der Knokke, S., Orlebeke, J. F. K., Burgers, I., & Sergeant, J. A. (2005). Physical activity and executive functions in the elderly with mild cognitive impairment. Aging & Mental Health, 9, 272–280.
  • Scoville, W. B., & Milner, B. (1957). Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 20, 11–21.
  • Shepherd, A. M., Laurens, K. R., Matheson, S. L., Carr, V. J., & Green, M. J. (2012). Systematic meta-review and quality assessment of the structural brain alterations in schizophrenia. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 36, 1342–1356.
  • Shih, I., Paul, K., Haan, M., Yu, Y., & Ritz, B. (2018). Physical activity modifies the influence of apoloproprotein E ε4 allele and type 2 diabetes on dementia and cognitive impairment among older Mexican Americans. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 14, 1–9.
  • Sink, K. M., Espeland, M. A., Castro, C. M., Church, T., Cohen, R., Dodson, J. A., & Williamson, J. D. (2015). Effect of a 24-month physical activity intervention vs health education on cognitive outcomes in sedentary older adults: The LIFE randomized trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 314, 781–790.
  • Smiley-Oyen, A. L., Lowry, K. A., Francois, S. J., Kohut, M. L., & Ekkekakis, P. (2008). Exercise, fitness, and neurocognitive function in older adults: The “selective improvement” and “cardiovascular fitness” hypothesis. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 36, 280–291.
  • Sofi, F., Valecchi, D., Bacci, D., Abbate, R., Gensini, G. F., Casini, A., & Macchi, C. (2011). Physical activity and risk of cognitive decline: A meta-analysis of prospective studies. Journal of Internal Medicine, 269, 107–117.
  • Spalding, K. L., Bergmann, O., Alkass, K., Bernard, S., Salehpour, M., Huttner, H. B., & Frisén, J. (2013). Dynamics of hippocampal neurogenesis in adult humans. Cell, 153, 1219–1227.
  • Suzuki, T., Shimada, H., Makizado, H., Doi, T., Yoshida, D., Tsutsamimoto, K., & Park, H. (2012). Effects of multicomponent exercise on cognitive function in older adults with amnestic mild cognitive impairment: A randomized controlled trial. BMC Neurology, 12, 128.
  • Taupin, P. (2007). BrdU immunohistochemistry for studying adult neurogenesis: Paradigms, pitfalls, limitations, and validation. Brain Research Reviews, 53, 198–214.
  • ten Brinke, L. F., Bolandzadeh, N., Nagamatsu, L. S., Hsu, C. L., Davis, J. C., Miran-Khan, K., & Liu-Ambrose, T. (2015). Aerobic exercise increases hippocampal volume in older women with probable mild cognitive impairment: A 6-month randomized controlled trial. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 49, 248–254.
  • Thomas, A. G., Dennis, A., Rawlings, N. B., Stagg, C. J., Matthews, L., Morris, M., & Johansen- Berg, H. (2016). Multi-modal characterization of rapid anterior hippocampal volume increase associated with aerobic exercise. Neuroimage, 131, 162–170.
  • van de Rest, O., van der Zwaluw, N. L., Tieland, M., Adam, J. J., Hiddink, G. J., van Loon, L. J., & de Groot, L. C. (2014). Effect of resistance-type exercise training with or without protein supplementation on cognitive functioning in frail and pre-frail elderly: Secondary analysis of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Mechanisms of Ageing and Development, 136–137, 85–93.
  • van Praag, H., Shubert, T., Zhao, C., & Gage, F. H. (2005). Exercise enhances learning and hippocampal neurogenesis in aged mice. Journal of Neuroscience, 25, 8680–8685.
  • van Uffelen, J. G. Z., Chinapaw, M. J. M., van Mechelen, W., & Hopman-Rock, M. (2008). Walking or vitamin B for cognition in older adults with mild cognitive impairment? A randomized controlled trial. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 42, 344–351.
  • van Valen, L. (1974). Brain size and intelligence in man. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 40, 417–424.
  • Winblad, B., Palmer, K., Kivipelto, M., Jelic, V., Fratiglioni, L., Wahlund, L.-O., & Petersen, R. C. (2004). Mild cognitive impairment – Beyond controversies, towards a consensus: Report of the international working group on mild cognitive impairment. Journal of Internal Medicine, 256, 240–246.
  • Wolf, H., Kruggel, F., Hensel, A., Wahlund, L. O., Arendt, T., & Gertz, H. J. (2003). The relationship between head size and intracranial volume in elderly subjects. Brain Research, 973, 74–80.
  • Woo, J. (2000). Relationships among diet, physical activity and other lifestyle factors and debilitating diseases in the elderly. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 54(Supplement 3), 143–S147.
  • World Health Organization. (2010). Global recommendations on physical activity for health. Geneva: Author.
  • Young, J., Angevaren, M., Rusted, J., & Tabet, N. (2015). Aerobic exercise to improve cognitive function in older people without known cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database System Reviews, 4, CD005381.
  • Zheng, G., Xia, R., Zhou, W., Tao, J., & Chen, L. (2016). Aerobic exercise ameliorates cognitive function in older adults with mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review and meta- analysis of randomized controlled trials. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 50, 1443–1450.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.