References
- Albert, M. S., DeKosky, S. T., Dickson, D., Bubois, B., Feldman, H. H., Fox, N. C., Gamst, A., Holtzman, D. M., Jagust, W. J., Petersen, R. C., Snyder, P. J., Carrillo, M. C., Thies, B., & Phelps, C. H. (2011). The diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment due to Alzheimer’s disease: Recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association workgroups on diagnostic guideline for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dementia, 7(3), 270–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2011.02.008
- Bari, A., & Robbins, T. W. (2013). Inhibition and impulsivity: Behavioral and neural basis of response control. Progress in Neurobiology, 108, 44–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2013.06.005
- Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies. Cambridge University Press.
- Chang, S. (2014). Effects of orbitofrontal cortex lesions on autoshaped lever pressing and reversal learning. Behavioural Brain Research, 273, 52–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2014.07.029
- Daum, I., Schugens, M. M., Channon, S., Polkey, C. E., & Gray, J. A. (1991). T-maze discrimination and reversal learning after unilateral temporal or frontal lobe lesions in man. Cortex, 17(4), 613–622. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-9452(13)80010-X
- Dawson, M. R. W. (1988). Fitting the ex-Gaussian equation to reaction time distributions. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments and Computers, 20(1), 54–57. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03202603
- Deary, I., & Der, G. (2005). Reaction time, age, and cognitive ability: Longitudinal findings from age 16 to 63 years in representative population samples. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 12(2), 187–215. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825580590969235
- Der, G., & Deary, I. J. (2006). Age and sex differences in reaction time in adulthood: Results from the United Kingdom Health and Lifestyle Survey. Psychology and Aging, 21(1), 62–73. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.21.1.62
- Dykiert, D., Der, G., Starr, J. M., & Deary, I. J. (2012). Age differences in intra-individual variability in simple and choice reaction time: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Plos One, 7(10), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0045759
- Fellows, L. K., & Farah, M. J. (2003). Ventromedial frontal cortex mediates affective shifting in humans: Evidence from a reversal learning paradigm. Brain, 126(8), 1830–1837. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awg180
- Ferreira, D., Molina, Y., Machado, A., Westman, E., Wahlund, L.-O., Nieto, A., Correia, R., Junque, C., Diaz-Flores, L., & Barroso, J. (2014). Cognitive decline is mediated by gray matter changes during middle age. Neurobiology of Aging, 35(5), 1086–1094. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2013.10.095
- Fozard, J. L., Vercruyssen, M., Reynlds, S. L., Hancck, P. A., & Quilter, R. E. (1994). Age differences and changes in reaction time: The Baltimore longitudinal study of aging. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 49(4), P179–P189. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/49.4.P179
- Giorgio, A., Santelli, L., Tomassini, V., Bosnell, R., Smith, S., De Stefano, N., & Johansen-Berg, H. (2010). Age-related changes in grey and white matter structure throughout adulthood. Neuroimage, 51(3), 943–951. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.03.004
- Greenwood, P. M. (2000). The frontal aging hypothesis evaluated. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 6(6), 705–726. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617700666092
- Hervey, A., Epstein, J. N., Curry, J. F., Tonev, S., Arnold, L. E., Conners, C. K., & Hechtman, L. (2006). Reaction time distribution analysis of neuropsychological performance in an ADHD sample. Child Neuropsychology, 12(2), 125–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297040500499081
- Hultsch, D. F., Strauss, E., Hunter, M. A., & MacDonald, S. W. S. (2008). Intraindividual variability, cognition and aging. In F. I. M. Craik & T. A. Salthouse (Eds.), The handbook of aging and cognition (pp. 491–556). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
- Jensen, A. R. (2006). Clocking the Mind: Mental Chronometry and Individual Differences. Elsevier.
- Lai, Z. C., Moss, M. B., Killiany, R. J., Rosene, D. L., & Herndon, J. G. (1995). Executive system dysfunction in the aged monkey: Spatial and object reversal learning. Neurobiology of Aging, 16(6), 947–954. https://doi.org/10.1016/0197-4580(95)02014-4
- Leclaire, K. N., Osmon, D. C., & Driscoll, I. (2020). A distributional and theoretical analysis of reaction time in the reversal task across adulthood. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 42(2), 199–207. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2019.1703909
- Levy-Gigi, E., Kelemen, O., Gluck, M., & Kéri, S. (2011). Memory-impaired context reversal learning, but not cue reversal learning, in patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment. Neuropsychologia, 49(12), 3320–3326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.08.005
- Luce, R. D. (1986). Response Times. Oxford University Press.
- Maloney, L. T., & Wandell, B. A. (1984). A model of a single visual channel’s response to weak test lights. Vision Research, 24(7), 633–640. https://doi.org/10.1016/0042-6989(84)90203-7
- McGill, W. J., & Gibbon, J. (1965). The general-gamma distribution and reaction times. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 2(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-2496(65)90014-3
- Meijer, W. A., Groot, R. H., van Gerven, P. W., van Boxtel, M. P. J., & Jolles, J. (2009). Level of processing and reaction time in young and middle-aged adults and the effect of education. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 21(2&3), 216–234. https://doi.org/10.1080/09541440802091780
- Mell, T., Heekeren, H. R., Marschner, A., Wartenburger, I., Villringer, A., & Reischies, F. M. (2005). Effect of aging on stimulus-reward association learning. Neuropsychologia, 43(4), 554–563. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2004.07.010
- Miyake, A., & Friedman, N. P. (2012). The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: Four general conclusions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(1), 8–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411429458
- Osmon, D. C., Kazakov, D., Santos, O., & Kassel, M. T. (2018). Non-Gaussian distributional analyses of reaction times (RT): Improvements that increase efficacy of RT tasks for describing cognitive processes. Neuropsychology Review, 28(3), 359–376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-018-9382-8
- Ratcliff, R. (1979). Group reaction time distributions and an analysis of distribution statistics. Psychological Bulletin, 65(3), 446–461. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.3.446
- Ratcliff, R., & McKoon, G. (2008). The diffusion decision model: Theory and data for two- choice decision tasks. Neural Computation, 20(4), 873–922. https://doi.org/10.1162/neco.2008.12-06-420
- Ratcliff, R., Thapar, A., Gomez, P., & McKoon, G. (2004). A diffusion model analysis of the effects of aging in the lexical-decision task. Psychology and Aging, 19(2), 278–289. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.19.2.278
- Ratcliff, R., Thapar, A., & McKoon, G. (2007). Application of the diffusion model to two-choice tasks for adults 75-90 years old. Psychology and Aging, 22(1), 56–66. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.22.1.56
- Ratcliff, R., Thapar, A., & McKoon, G. (2011). Effects of aging and IQ on item and associative memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 140(3), 464–487. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.10.1037/a0023810
- Rolls, E. T., Hornak, J., Wade, D., & McGrath, J. (1991). Emotion-related learning in patients with social and emotional changes associated with frontal lobe damage. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 57(12), 1518–1524. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.57.12.1518
- Salthouse, T. A. (2010). Selective review of cognitive aging. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 16(5), 754–760. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617710000706
- SAS. (2018). Predictive and specialized modeling.
- Sternberg, S. (1966). High-speed scanning in human memory. Science, 153(3736), 652–654. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.153.3736.652
- Stuss, D. T., Murphy, K. J., Binns, M. A., & Alexander, M. P. (2003). Staying on the job: The frontal lobes control individual performance variability. Brain, 126(11), 2363–2380. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awg237
- Tait, D., Chase, E., & Brown, V. (2013). Tacrine improves reversal learning in older rats. Neuropharmacology, 73, 284–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.05.036
- Thapar, A., Ratcliff, R., & McKoon, G. (2003). A diffusion model analysis of the effects of aging on letter discrimination. Psychology and Aging, 18(3), 415–429. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.18.3.415
- Tse, C.-S., Balota, D. A., Yap, M. J., Duchek, J. M., & McCabe, D. P. (2010). Effects of healthy aging and ear-stage dementia of the Alzheimer’s type on components of response time distribution in three attention tasks. Neuropsychology, 24(3), 300–315. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018274
- Ulrich, R., & Miller, J. (1993). Information processing models generating lognormally distributed reaction times. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 37(4), 513–525. https://doi.org/10.1006/jmps.1993.1032
- Ulrich, R., & Miller, J. (1994). Effects of truncation on reaction time analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 123(1), 34–80. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.123.1.34
- Van Belle, J., Van Raalten, T., Bos, D. J., Zandbelt, B. B., Oranje, B., & Durston, S. (2015). Capturing the dynamics of response variability in the brain in ADHD. NeuroImage: Clinical, 7, 132–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2014.11.014
- Vasquez, B. P., Binns, M. A., & Anderson, N. D. (2016). Staying on task: Age-related changes in the relationship between executive functioning and response time consistency. Journals of Genontology: Psychological Sciences, 71(2), 189–200. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbu140
- Vasquez, B. P., Binns, M. A., & Anderson, N. D. (2018). Response time consistency is an indicator of executive control rather than global cognitive ability. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 24(5), 456–465. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617717001266
- Weilier, J. A., Bellebaum, C., & Daum, I. (2008). Aging effects acquisition and reversal of reward-based associative learning. Learning & Memory, 15(4), 190–197. https://doi.org/10.1101/lm.890408
- West, R., Murphy, K. J., Armilio, M. L., Craik, F. I. M., & Stuss, D. T. (2002). Lapses of intention and performance variability reveal age-related increases in fluctuations of executive control. Brain and Cognition, 49(3), 402–419. https://doi.org/10.1006/brcg.2001.1507