192
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Articles

The relationship between performance validity testing, external incentives, and cognitive functioning in long COVID

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, , , , , , , , & show all
Pages 6-15 | Received 01 Sep 2023, Accepted 13 Dec 2023, Published online: 01 Feb 2024

References

  • Armistead Jehle, P., Cooper, D. B., & Vander Ploeg, R. D. (2016). The role of performance validity tests in the assessment of cognitive functioning after military concussion: A replication and extension. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 23(4), 264–273. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2015.1055564
  • Ashton Rennison, V. L., Chovaz, C. J., & Zirul, S. (2023). Cognition and psychological well-being in adults with post COVID-19 condition and analyses of symptom sequelae. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 38(2), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2023.2227407
  • Becker, J. H., Lin, J. J., Doernberg, M., Stone, K., Navis, A., Festa, J. R., & Wisnivesky, J. P. (2021). Assessment of cognitive function in patients after COVID-19 infection. JAMA Network Open, 4(10), e2130645. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.30645
  • Beck, A. T., & Steer, R. A. (1993). Beck anxiety inventory manual. Psychological Corporation.
  • Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for the beck depression inventory-II. Psychological Corporation.
  • Benton, A. L., Sivan, A. B., DeS Hamsher, K., Varney, N. R., & Spreen, O. (1994). Contributions to neuropsychological assessment (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
  • Bianchini, K. J., Curtis, K. L., & Greve, K. W. (2006). Compensation and malingering in traumatic brain injury: A dose-response relationship? The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 20(4), 831–847. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040600875203
  • Boone, K. B. (2009). The need for continuous and comprehensive sampling of effort/response bias during neuropsychological examinations. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(4), 729–741. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040802427803
  • Boone, K. B. (Ed.). (2021). Assessment of feigned cognitive impairment. Guilford Press, Inc.
  • Boone, K. B., Lu, P., & Hertzberg, D. S. (2002). The dot counting test manual. Western Psychological Services.
  • Brandt, J., & Benedict, R. H. B. (1991). Hopkins verbal learning test-revised manual. Psychological Assessment Resources.
  • Braun, S. E., Fountain-Zaragoza, S., Halliday, C. A., & Horner, M. D. (2021). Demographic differences in performance validity test failure. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 24(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2021.1958814
  • Bush, S. S., Ruff, R. M., Tröster, A. I., Barth, J. T., Koffler, S. P., Pliskin, N. H., Reynolds, C. R., & Silver, C. H. (2005). Symptom validity assessment: Practice issues and medical necessity NAN policy & planning committee. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20(4), 419–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2005.02.002
  • Cavaco, S., Sousa, G., Gonçalves, A., Dias, A., Andrade, C., Pereira, D., Aires, E. A., Moura, J., Silva, L., Varela, R., Malheiro, S., Oliveira, V., Teixeira-Pinto, A., Maia, L. F., & Correia, M. (2023). Predictors of cognitive dysfunction one-year post COVID-19. Neuropsychology, 37(5), 557–567. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000876
  • Ceban, F., Ling, S., Liu, L. M. W., Lee, Y., Gill, H., Teopiz, K. M., Rodrigues, N. B., Subramaniapillai, M., Vincenzo, J. D. D., Cao, B., Lin, K., Mansur, R. B., Ho, R. C., Rosenblat, J. D., Miskowiak, K. W., Vinberg, M., Maletic, V., & McIntyre, R. S. (2022). Fatigue and cognitive impairment in post-COVID-19 syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Brain Behavior and Immunity, 101, 93–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2021.12.020
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, December 16). Long COVID or post-COVID conditions. US Department of Health and Human Services, CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/long-term-effects/index.html
  • Cooper, D. B., Vanderploeg, R. D., Armistead Jehle, P., Lewis, J., & Bowles, A. O. (2014). Factors associated with neurocognitive performance in OEF/OIF service members with postconcussive complaints in postdeployment clinical settings. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 51(7), 1023–1034. https://doi.org/10.1682/jrrd.2013.05.0104
  • Dai, J., Teng, L., Zhao, L., & Zou, H. (2021). The combined analgesic effect of pregabalin and morphine in the treatment of pancreatic cancer pain, a retrospective study. Cancer Medicine, 10(5), 1738–1744. https://doi.org/10.1002/cam4.3779
  • Davis, H. E., Assaf, G. S., McCorkell, L., Wei, H., Low, R. J., Re’em, Y., Redfield, S., Austin, J. P., & Akrami, A. (2021). Characterizing long COVID in an international cohort: 7 months of symptoms and their impact. EClinicalMedicine, 38, 101019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.101019
  • Davis, J. J., Axelrod, B. N., McHugh, T. S., Hanks, R. A., & Millis, S. R. (2013). Number of impaired scores as a performance validity indicator. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 35(4), 413–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2013.781134
  • Drozdick, L. W., Holdnack, J. A., Weiss, L. G., & Zhou, X. (2013). Overview of the WAIS-IV/WMS-IV/ACS. In J. A. Holdnack, L. W. Drozdick, L. G. Weiss, & G. L. Iverson (Eds.), WAIS-IV, WMS-IV, and ACS: Advanced clinical interpretation (pp. 1–73). Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386934-0.00001-8
  • Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics, fourth edition. Sage Publishing, Inc.
  • Golden, C. (2002). Stroop color and word test manual. Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.
  • Green, P., & Merten, T. (2013). Noncredible explanations of noncredible performance on symptom validity tests. In D. A. Carone & S. S. Bush (Eds.), Mild traumatic brain injury: Symptom validity assessment and malingering (pp. 73–100). Springer, Inc.
  • Greiffenstein, M. F., Baker, W. J., & Gola, T. (1994). Validation of malingered amnesia measures with a large clinical sample. Psychological Assessment, 6(3), 218–224. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.6.3.218
  • Heaton, R. K., Miller, S. D., Taylor, M. J., & Grant, I. (2004). Revised comprehensive norms for an expanded Halstead-Reitan battery: Demographically adjusted neuropsychological norms for African American and Caucasian adults. Psychological Assessment Resources.
  • Kay, C. D., Costa, A. S., Vannorsdall, T. D., Aduen, P., Vila-Castelar, C., Burstein, S. M., Pollak, L., Leibel, D. K., Sherman, J. C., Bungenberg, J., Reetz, K., & Quiroz, Y. T. (2022). Neuropsychological outcomes of COVID-19: A multicenter, cross-cultural study of patients referred for outpatient assessment. COVID, 2(9), 1253–1264. https://doi.org/10.3390/covid2090092
  • Krishnan, K., Miller, A., Reiter, K., & Bonner-Jackson, A. (2022). Neurocognitive profiles in patients with persisting cognitive symptoms associated with COVID-19. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 37(4), 729–737. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acac004
  • Larrabee, G. J. (2014). False-positive rates associated with the use of multiple performance and symptom validity tests. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 29(4), 364–373. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acu019
  • Larrabee, G. J., Greiffenstein, M. F., Greve, K. W., & Bianchini, K. J. (2007). Refining diagnostic criteria for malingering. In G. J. Larrabee (Ed.), Assessment of malingered neuropsychological deficits (pp. 334–371). Oxford University Press.
  • Larrabee, G. J., Millis, S. R., & Meyers, J. E. (2009). 40 plus or minus 10, a new magical number: Reply to Russell. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(5), 841–849. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040902796735
  • Leppma, M., Long, D., Smith, M., & Lassiter, C. (2018). Detecting symptom exaggeration in college students seeking ADHD treatment: Performance validity assessment using the NV-MSVT and IVA-Plus. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 25(3), 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2016.1277723
  • Marshall, P. S., & Schroeder, R. W. (2022). Validity assessment in patients with psychiatric disorder. In R. W. Schroeder & P. K. Martin (Eds.), Validity assessment in clinical neuropsychological practice (pp. 173–204). Guilford Press.
  • Martin, P. K., & Schroeder, R. W. (2020). Base rates of invalid test performance across clinical nonforensic contexts and settings. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 35(6), 717–725. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acaa017
  • Martin, P. K., & Schroeder, R. W. (2022). Malingering: Maintaining a perspective of clinical care when patients feign. In R. W. Schroeder & P. K. Martin (Eds.), Validity assessment in clinical neuropsychological practice (pp. 53–81). Guilford Press.
  • Martin, P. K., Schroeder, R. W., & Odland, A. P. (2015). Neuropsychologists’ validity testing beliefs and practices: A survey of North American professionals. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 29(6), 741–776. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2015.1087597
  • Meyers, J. E., & Meyers, K. S. (1995). Rey complex figure test and recognition trial manual. Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.
  • Nosek, B. A., & Errington, T. M. (2020). What is replication? PLOSBiology, 18(3), e3000691. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3000691
  • Of Directors, B., & Board of Directors. (2007). American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology (AACN) practice guidelines for neuropsychological assessment and consultation. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 21(2), 209–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825580601025932
  • Sawyer, R. J., II, Testa, S. M., & Dux, M. (2017). Embedded performance validity tests within the hopkins verbal learning test – revised and the brief visuospatial memory test – revised. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 31(1), 207–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2016.1245787
  • Schroeder, R. W., Boone, K. B., & Larrabee, G. J. (2021). Design methods in neuropsychological performance validity, symptom validity, and malingering research. In K. B. Boone (Ed.), Assessment of feigned cognitive impairment: A neuropsychological perspective (pp. 15–23). Guilford Press.
  • Schroeder, R. W., & Martin, P. K. (Eds.). (2022). Validity assessment in clinical neuropsychological practice. Guilford Press.
  • Schroeder, R. W., Martin, P. K., Heinrichs, R. J., & Baade, L. E. (2019). Research methods in performance validity testing studies: Criterion grouping approach impacts study outcomes. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 33(3), 466–477. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2018.1484517
  • Soble, J. R., Cerny, B. M., Rhoads, T., DeBoer, A. B., Sharp, D. W., Ovsiew, G. P., Phillips, M. S., Pesanti, S. D., Jennette, K. J., & Resch, Z. J. (2023). Do demographic factors influence detection of invalid neuropsychological test performance using common performance validity tests? A multisite investigation. Neuropsychology, 37(2), 218–232. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000880
  • Stern, R. A., & White, T. (2003). Neuropsychological assessment battery manual. Psychological Assessment Resources.
  • Sumanti, M., Boone, K. B., Savodnik, I., & Gorsuch, R. (2006). Noncredible psychiatric and cognitive symptoms in a worker’s compensation “stress” claim sample. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 20(4), 754–765. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040500428467
  • Sweet, J. J., Heilbronner, R. L., Morgan, J. E., Larrabee, G. J., Rohling, M. L., Boone, K. B., Kirkwood, M. W., Schroeder, R. W., Suhr, J. A., & Conference Participants. (2021). American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology (AACN) 2021 consensus statement on validity assessment: Update of the 2009 AACN consensus conference statement on neuropsychological assessment of effort, response bias, and malingering. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35(6), 1053–1106. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2021.1896036
  • Tombaugh, T. N. (1997). The Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM): Normative data from cognitively intact and cognitively impaired individuals. Psychological Assessment, 9(3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.9.3.260
  • Valdes, E., Fuchs, B., Morrison, C., Charvet, L., Lewis, A., Thawani, S., Balcer, L., Galetta, S. L., Wisniewski, T., & Frontera, J. A. (2022). Demographic and social determinants of cognitive dysfunction following hospitalization for COVID-19. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 438, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2022.120146
  • Van Egmond, J., Kummeling, I., & Balkom, T. A. (2005). Secondary gain as hidden motive for getting psychiatric treatment. European Psychiatry, 20(5–6), 416–421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2004.11.012
  • Whiteside, D. M., Basso, M. R., Naini, S. M., Waldron, E., Holker, E., Porter, J., Melnik, T., Niskanen, N., & Taylor, S. (2022). Outcomes in Post-Acute Sequelae of COVID-19 (PASC) at 6 months post-infection part 1: Cognitive functioning. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 36(4), 806–828. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2022.2030412
  • Whiteside, D. M., Naini, S. M., Basso, M. R., Waldron, E., Holker, E., Porter, J., Niskanen, N., Melnik, T., & Taylor, S. (2022). Outcomes in Post-Acute Sequelae of COVID-19 (PASC) at 6 months post-infection part 2: Psychological functioning. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 36(4), 829–847. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2022.2030411
  • Wilkinson, G. S., & Robertson, G. J. (2006). Wide range achievement test-4 professional manual. Pearson, Inc.
  • World Health Organization. (2022, December 7). Post COVID-19 condition (long COVID). https://www.who.int/europe/news-room/fact-sheets/item/post-covid-19-condition
  • Yanez, Y. T., Fremouw, W., Tennant, J., Strunk, J., & Coker, K. (2006). Effects of severe depression on TOMM performance among disability-seeking outpatients. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 21(2), 161–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2005.07.009
  • Yoo, S. M., Liu, T. C., Motwani, Y., Sim, M. S., Viswanathan, N., Samras, N., Hsu, F., & Wenger, N. S. (2022). Factors associated with post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 (PASC) after diagnosis of symptomatic COVID-19 in the inpatient and outpatient setting in a diverse cohort. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 37(8), 1988–1995. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-022-07523-3

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.