Case study of invalid to valid shift in cognitive performance following successful treatment of psychogenic nonepileptic seizure events

References

• Ali, S., Crisan, J., Abeare, C. A., & Erdodi, L. A. (2022). Cross-cultural performance validity testing: Managing false positives in examinees with limited English proficiency. Developmental Psychology, 47(6), 273–294. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2022.2105847
   Google Scholar
• Amado-Boccara, I., Gougoulis, N., Poirier Littre, M. F., Galinowski, A., & Loo, H. (1995). Effects of antidepressants on cognitive functions: A review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 19(3), 479–493. https://doi.org/10.1016/0149-7634(94)00068-C
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56(6), 893–897. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.56.6.893
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for the beck depression inventory - II. The Psychological Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Benbadis, S. R. (2005). The problem of psychogenic symptoms: Is the psychiatric community in denial? Epilepsy and Behavior, 6(1), 9–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2004.10.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Binder, L. M., Kindermann, S. S., Heaton, R. K., & Salinsky, M. C. (1998). Neuropsychologic impairment in patients with nonepileptic seizures. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 13(6), 513–522. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/13.6.513
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borghs, S., de la Loge, C., & Cramer, J. A. (2012). Defining minimally important change in QOLIE-31 scores: Estimates from three placebo-controlled lacosamide trials in patients with partial-onset seizures. Epilepsy and Behavior, 23(3), 230–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2011.12.023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butcher, J. N., Graham, J. R., Ben-Porath, Y. S., Tellegen, A., Dahlstrom, W. G., & Kaemmer, B. (2001). MMPI-2: Manual for administration and scoring (Rev. ed.). University of Minnesota Press.
   Google Scholar
• Carlson, E. B., & Putnam, F. W. (1993). An update on the dissociative experience scale. Dissociation, 6(1), 16–27.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cragar, D. E., Schmitt, F. A., Berry, D. T. R., Cibula, J. E., Dearth, C. M. S., & Fakhoury, T. A. (2003). A comparison of MMPI-2 Decision rules in the diagnosis of nonepileptic seizures. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25(6), 793–804. https://doi.org/10.1076/jcen.25.6.793.16471
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Derry, P. A., & Mclachlan, R. S. (1996). The MMPI-2 as an adjunct to the diagnosis of pseudoseizures. Seizure, 5(1), 35–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1059-1311(96)80060-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diez, I., Larson, A. G., Nakhate, V., Dunn, E. C., Fricchione, G. L., Nicholson, T. R., & Perez, D. L. (2020). Early-life trauma endophenotypes and brain circuit–gene expression relationships in functional neurological (conversion) disorder. Molecular Psychiatry, 26(8), 3817–3828. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-020-0665-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dikel, T. N., Fennell, E. B., & Gilmore, R. L. (2003). Posttraumatic stress disorder, dissociation, and sexual abuse history in epileptic and nonepileptic seizure patients. Epilepsy and Behavior, 4(6), 644–650. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2003.08.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drake, M. E., Huber, S. J., Pakalnis, A., & Phillips, B. B. (1993). Neuropsychological and event-related potential correlates of nonepileptic seizures. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 5(1), 102.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drane, D. L., Coady, E., Williamson, D. J., Miller, J. W., & Benbadis, S. R. (Eds.). (2011). Neuropsychological assessment of patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Drane, D. L., Fani, N., Hallett, M., Khalsa, S. S., Perez, D. L., & Roberts, N. A. (2020). A framework for understanding the pathophysiology of functional neurological disorder. CNS Spectrums, 26(6), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852920001789
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drane, D. L., LaRoche, S. M., Ganesh, G. A., Teagarden, D., & Loring, D. W. (2016). A standardized diagnostic approach and ongoing feedback improves outcome in psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsy and Behavior, 54, 34–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2015.10.026
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drane, D. L., & Locke, D. (2017). Mechanisms of possible neurocognitive dysfunction. In B. A. Dworetzky & G. Baslet (Eds.), Psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: Toward the integration of care (pp. 86–105). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Drane, D. L., Ojemann, J. G., Kim, M., Gross, R. E., Miller, J. W., Faught, R. E., & Loring, D. W. (2016). Interictal epileptiform discharge effects on neuropsychological assessment and epilepsy surgical planning. Epilepsy and Behavior, 56, 131–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2016.01.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drane, D. L., Williamson, D. J., Stroup, E. S., Holmes, M. D., Jung, M., Koerner, E., & Miller, J. W. (2006). Cognitive impairment is not equal in patients with epileptic and psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsia, 47(11), 1879–1886. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2006.00611.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ebus, S., Arends, J., Hendriksen, J., van der Horst, E., de la Parra, N., Hendriksen, R., & Aldenkamp, B. (2012). Cognitive effects of interictal epileptiform discharges in children. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology, 16(6), 707–715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpn.2012.05.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foa, E. B., McLean, C. P., Zang, Y., Zhong, J., Rauch, S., Porter, K., & Kauffman, B. Y. (2016). Psychometric properties of the posttraumatic stress disorder symptom scale interview for DSM–5 (PSSI–5). Psychological Assessment, 28(10), 1159–1165. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000259
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gursoy, S. C., Ergun, S. M. I., & Topcuoglu, V. (2021). Theory of mind and its relationship with alexithymia and quality of life in patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: Comparisons with generalised epilepsy and healthy controls. Seizure, 91, 251–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2021.06.032
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hantke, N. C., Doherty, M. J., & Haltiner, A. M. (2007). Medication use profiles in patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsy and Behavior, 10(2), 333–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2006.11.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henry, G. K., Heilbronner, R., Suhr, J., Gorbein, J., Wagner, E. B., & Drane, D. L. (2018). Illness perception and beliefs predict cognitive performance validity. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 24(7), 735–745. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617718000218
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hermann, B. P., Seidenberg, M., Schoenfeld, J., Peterson, J., Leveroni, C., & Wyler, A. R. (1996). Empirical techniques for determining the reliability, magnitude, and pattern of neuropsychological change after epilepsy surgery. Epilepsia, 37(10), 942–950. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1157.1996.tb00531.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horner, M. D., VanKirk, K. K., Dismuke, C. E., Turner, T. H., & Muzzy, W. (2014). Inadequate effort on neuropsychological evaluation is associated with increased healthcare utilization. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 28(5), 703–713. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2014.925143
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalogjera-Sackellares, D., & Sackellares, J. C. (1999). Intellectual and neuropsychological features of patients with psychogenic pseudoseizures. Psychiatry Research, 86(1), 73–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1781(99)00016-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karakis, I., Janocko, N. J., Morton, M. L., Groover, O., Teagarden, D., Villarreal, H. K., & Drane, D. L. (2020). Stigma in psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsy and Behavior, 111, 107269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2020.107269
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleen, J. K., Scott, R. C., Holmes, G. L., Roberts, D. W., Rundle, M. M., Testorf, M., & Jobst, B. C. (2013). Hippocampal interictal epileptiform activity disrupts cognition in humans. Neurology, 81(1), 18–24. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e318297ee50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotov, R. I., Bellman, S. B., & Watson, D. B. (2004). Short suggestibility scale. Stony Brook Medicine.
   Google Scholar
• Locke, D. E., Kirlin, K. A., Thomas, M. L., Osborne, D., Hurst, D. F., Drazkowski, J. F., & Noe, K. H. (2010). The Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory - 2 - restructured form in the epilepsy monitoring unit. Epilepsy and Behavior, 17(2), 252–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2009.12.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Locke, D., Williamson, D., & Drane, D. (2019). Use of neuropsychological and personality testing to identify adults with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. In J. W. LaFrance & S. Schachter (Eds.), Gates and Rowan’s Nonepileptic Seizures (4th ed., pp. 150–157). Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Loeber, S., Kniest, A., Diehl, A., Mann, K., & Croissant, B. (2008). Neuropsychological functioning of opiate-dependent patients: A nonrandomized comparison of patients preferring either buprenorphine or methadone maintenance treatment. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 34(5), 584–593. https://doi.org/10.1080/00952990802308239
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loring, D. W., Goldstein, F. C., Chen, C., Drane, D. L., Lah, J. L., Zhao, L., & Larrabee, G. J. (2016). False-positive error rates for reliable digit span and auditory verbal learning test performance validity measures in amnestic mild cognitive impairment and early Alzheimer disease. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 31(4), 313–331. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acw014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loring, D. L., Marino, S., Drane, D. L., Parfitt, D., Finney, G. R., & Meador, K. J. (2011). Lorazepam effects on word memory test performance: A randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled, cross-over trial. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 25(5), 799–811. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2011.583279
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Myers, L., Zeng, R., Perrine, K., Lancman, M., & Lancman, M. (2014). Cognitive differences between patients who have Psychogenic Nonepileptic Seizures (PNESs) and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Patients who have PNESs without PTSD. Epilepsy and Behavior, 37, 82–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2014.06.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicolai, J., Ebus, S., Biemans, D. P., Arends, J., Hendriksen, J., Vles, J. S., & Aldenkamp, A. P. (2012). The cognitive effects of interictal epileptiform EEG discharges and short nonconvulsive epileptic seizures. Epilepsia, 53(6), 1051–1059. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2012.03491.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Novakova, B., Howlett, S., Baker, R., & Reuber, M. (2015). Emotion processing and psychogenic non-epileptic seizures: A cross-sectional comparison of patients and healthy controls. Seizure, 29, 4–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2015.03.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Brien, F. M., Fortune, G. M., Dicker, P., O’Hanlon, E., Cassidy, E., Delanty, N., & Murphy, K. C. (2015). Psychiatric and neuropsychological profiles of people with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsy and Behavior, 43, 39–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2014.11.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perez, D. L., Dworetzky, B. A., Dickerson, B. C., Leung, L., Cohn, R., & Baslet, G. S. (2015). An integrative neurocircuit perspective on psychogenic nonepileptic seizures and functional movement disorders: Neural functional unawareness. Clinical EEG and Neuroscience, 46(1), 4–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/1550059414555905
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Popkirov, S., Asadi-Pooya, A. A., Duncan, R., Gigineishvili, D., Hingray, C., Kanner, A. M., & Reuber, M. (2019). The aetiology of psychogenic non-epileptic seizures: Risk factors and comorbidities. Epileptic Disorders, 21(6), 529–547. https://doi.org/10.1684/epd.2019.1107
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prosser, J., Cohen, L. J., Steinfeld, M., Eisenberg, D., London, E. D., & Galynker, I. I. (2006). Neuropsychological functioning in opiate-dependent subjects receiving and following methadone maintenance treatment. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 84(3), 240–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.02.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rawlings, G. H., Brown, I., & Reuber, M. (2017). Deconstructing stigma in psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: An exploratory study. Epilepsy and Behavior, 74, 167–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2017.06.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raynor, G., & Baslet, G. (2021). A historical review of functional neurological disorder and comparison to contemporary models. Epilepsy & Behavior Reports, 16, 100489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebr.2021.100489
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reuber, M., & Brown, R. J. (2017). Understanding psychogenic nonepileptic seizures - phenomenology, semiology and the integrative cognitive model. Seizure, 44, 199–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2016.10.029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roelofs, K., & Pasman, J. (2016). Stress, childhood trauma, and cognitive functions in functional neurologic disorders. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 139, 139–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-801772-2.00013-8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Roor, J. J., Dandachi-Fitzgerald, B., Peters, M. J. V., Knoop, H., & Ponds, R. W. H. M. (2022). Performance validity and outcome of cognitive behavior therapy in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 28(5), 473–482. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617721000643
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salinsky, M., Binder, L., Storzbach, D., Parko, K., Rutecki, P., Goy, E., & Tadrous-Furnanz, S. (2020). Validity testing in veterans with epileptic seizures and psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsy and Behavior, 111, 107246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2020.107246
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoenberg, M. R., Werz, M. A., & Drane, D. L. (2011). Epilepsy and seizures. In M. R. S. J. Scott (Ed.), Black book of neuropsychology (pp. 423–519). Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Schonenberg, M., Jusyte, A., Hohnie, N., Meayer, S. V., Weber, Y., Hautzinger, M., & Schell, C. (2015). Theory of mind abilities in patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsy and Behavior, 53, 20–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2015.09.036
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized self-efficacy scale. In J. Weinman, S. Wright, & M. Johnston (Eds.), Measures in health psychology: A user’s portfolio. Causal and control beliefs (pp. 35–37). NFER-NELSON.
   Google Scholar
• Stewart, S. A. (2005). The effects of benzodiazepines on cognition. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66(Suppl. 2), 9–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stone, J., & Carson, A. (2011). Functional neurologic symptoms. Assessment and Management Neurologic Clinics, 29(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ncl.2010.10.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Storzbach, D., Binder, L. M., Salinsky, M. C., Campbell, B. R., & Mueller, R. M. (2000). Improved prediction of nonepileptic seizures with combined MMPI and EEG measures. Epilepsia, 41(3), 332–337. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1157.2000.tb00164.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkus, R. J., & Dodrill, C. B. (1989). Factor affecting the outcome of MMPI and neuropsychological assessments of psychogenic and epileptic seizure patients. Epilepsia, 30(3), 339–347. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1157.1989.tb05307.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkus, R. J., Dodrill, C. B., & Thompson, P. M. (1984). Intensive EEG monitoring and psychological studies of patients with pseudoepileptic seizures. Epilepsia, 25(1), 100–107. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1157.1984.tb04162.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williamson, D. J., Locke, D., Denham, M., & Drane, D. L. (2015). Three faces of psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. In K. Boone (Ed.), Neuropsychological evaluation of medically unexplained symptoms (pp. 147–172). Taylor & Francis.
   Google Scholar
• Willment, K., Hill, M., Baslet, G., & Loring, D. W. (2015). Cognitive impairment and evaluation in psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: An integrated cognitive-emotional approach. Clinical EEG and Neuroscience, 46(1), 42–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/1550059414566881
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, T., Roberts, C., Winton-Brown, T., Lloyd, M., Kwan, P., O’Brien, T. J., & Malpas, C. B. (2023). Childhood trauma in patients with epileptic vs nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsia, 64(1), 184–195. https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.17449
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar