The Association Between Racial Discrimination and Suicidality among African-American Adolescents and Young Adults

REFERENCES

• Branscombe, N. R., Schmitt, M. T., & Harvey, R. D. (1999). Perceiving pervasive discrimination among African Americans: Implications for group identification and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(1), 135.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brezo, J., Paris, J., & Turecki, G. (2006). Personality traits as correlates of suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, and suicide completion: A systematic review. Acta Pscyhiatrica Scandinavica, 113, 180–206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bucholz, K., Cadoret, R., Cloninger, C. R., Dinwiddie, S. H., Hesselbrock, V. M., Nurnberger, J. I., … Schuckit, M. A. (1994). A new, semi-structured psychiatric interview for use in genetic linkage studies: A report on the reliability of the SSAGA. Journal on Studies of Alcohol and Drugs, 55, 149–158.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castle, K., Conner, K., Kaukeinen, K., & Tu, X. (2011). Perceived racism, discrimination, and acculturation in suicidal ideation and suicide attempts among black young adults. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 41(3), 342–351.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conner, K. R., Bossarte, R. M., Lu, N., Kaukeinen, K., Chan, G., Wyman, P., … & Hesselbrock, V. M. (2014). Parent and child psychopathology and suicide attempts among children of parents with alcohol use disorder. Archives of Suicide Research, 18(2), 117–130.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conner, K. R., Hesselbrock, V. M., Meldrum, S. C., Schuckit, M. A., Bucholz, K. K., Gamble, S. A., … Kramer, J. (2007). Transitions to, and correlates of, suicidal ideation, plans, and unplanned and planned suicide attempts among 3,729 men and women with alcohol dependence. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68(5), 654–662.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review, 96(4), 608.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. T. (1994), Maternal depression and child development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 73–122. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1994.tb01133.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, G. Y., & Stevenson, H. C. (2006). Racial socialization experiences and symptoms of depression among Black youth. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 15(3), 293–307.
   Google Scholar
• Duncan, A. E., Lessov-Schlaggar, C. N., Sartor, C. E., & Bucholz, K. K. (2012). Differences in time to onset of smoking and nicotine dependence by race/ethnicity in a Midwestern sample of adolescents and young adults from a high risk family study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 125, 140–145.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gelman, A., & Hill, J. (2007). Data analysis using regression and multilevel/hierarchical models. NY: Cambridge Press, pp. 68–95.
   Google Scholar
• Glowinski, A. L., Bucholz, K. K., Nelson, E. C., Fu, Q., Madden, P. A., Reich, W., & Heath, A. C. (2001). Suicide attempts in an adolescent female twin sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(11), 1300–1307.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glowinski, A. L., Jacob, T., Bucholz, K. K., Scherrer, J. F., True, W., & Heath, A. C. (2004). Paternal alcohol dependence and offspring suicidal behaviors in a children-of-twins study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 76, S69–S77.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomez, J., Miranda, R., & Polanco, L. (2011). Acculturative stress, perceived discrimination, and vulnerability to suicide attempts among emerging adults. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(11), 1465–1476.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Groves, S. A., Stanley, B. H., Sher, L. (2007). Ethnicity and the relationship between adolescent alcohol use and suicidal behavior. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 19, 19–25.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hagiwara, N., Alderson, C. J., & Mezuk, B. (2016). Differential effects of personal-level vs group-level racial discrimination on health among black americans. Ethnicity & Disease, 26(3), 453–460.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heron M. (2016). Deaths: Leading causes for 2014 National vital statistics reports; 65(5). Hyattsville MD: National Center for Health Statistics.
   Google Scholar
• Holmes, S. J., & Robins, L. N. (1987). The influence of childhood disciplinary experience on the development of alcoholism and depression. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 28(3), 399–415.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hudson, D. L., Neighbors, H. W., Geronimus, A. T., & Jackson, J. S. (2015). Racial discrimination, john henryism, and depression among African Americans. Ethnicity & disease, 15(4), 594.
   Google Scholar
• Hughes, D., Hagelskamp, C., Way, N., & Foust, M. D. (2009). The role of mothers’ and adolescents’ perceptions of ethnic-racial socialization in shaping ethnic-racial identity among early adolescent boys and girls. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(5), 605–626.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes, D., & Johnson, D. (2001). Correlates in children’s experiences of parents’ racial socialization behaviors. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 981–995
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes, D., Witherspoon, D., Rivas-Drake, D., & West-Bey, N. (2009). Received ethnic–racial socialization messages and youths’ academic and behavioral outcomes: Examining the mediating role of ethnic identity and self-esteem. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15(2), 112.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaplan, S., Pelcovitz, D., Salzinger, S., Mandel, F., & Weiner, M. (1997). Adolescent physical abuse and suicide attempts. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(6), 799–809.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the national comorbidity survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1048–1060.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krieger, N., Smith, K., Naishadham, D., Hartman, C., & Barbeau, E. M. (2005). Experiences of discrimination: Validity and reliability of a self-report measure for population health research on racism and health. Social Science & Medicine, 61(7), 1576–1596.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLean, J., Maxwell, M., Platt, S., Harris, F. M., & Jepson, R. (2008). Risk and protective factors for suicide and suicidal behaviour: A literature review. Health and Community Care, Scottish Government Social Research: Scottish Government.
   Google Scholar
• National Adolescent Health Center Information Center. (2008). Fact sheet on demographics: Adolescent & young adults. San Francisco, CA: University of California.
   Google Scholar
• Pieterse, A. L., Todd, N. R., Neville, H. A., & Carter, R. T. (2012). Perceived racism and mental health among Black American adults: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59(1), 1–9. doi:10.1037/a0026208
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richardson, B. L., Macon, T. A., Mustafaa, F. N., Bogan, E. D., Cole-Lewis, Y., & Chavous, T. M. (2015). Associations of racial discrimination and parental discrimination coping messages with African American adolescent racial identity. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(6), 1301–1317.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rumbaut, R. G. (1994). The crucible within: Ethnic identity, self-esteem, and segmented assimilation among children of immigrants. International migration review, 28(4), 748–794.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SAS Institute, Inc. (2002–2008). Cary, NC.
   Google Scholar
• Selvin, S. (1996). Statistical analysis of epidemiologic data. New York, NY. Oxford University Press, 213–214.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, E. P., Walker, K., Fields, L., Brookins, C. C., & Seay, R. C. (1999). Ethnic identity and its relationship to self-esteem, perceived efficacy and prosocial attitudes in early adolescence. Journal of adolescence, 22(6), 867–880.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• StataCorp (2015). Stata statistical software: Release 14. College Station, TX: StataCorp LP.
   Google Scholar
• Stevenson, H. C., Reed, J., Bodison, P., & Bishop, A. (1997). Racism stress management: Racial socialization beliefs and the experience of depression and anger in African American youth. Youth & Society, 29(2), 197–222.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas, A. J., & Speight, S. L. (1999). Racial identity and racial socialization attitudes of African American parents. Journal of Black Psychology, 25, 152–170.

   Google Scholar
• Thompson, K., Homel, J., & Leadbeater, B. (2015). The relationship of higher education to substance use trajectories: variations as a function of timing of enrollment. Journal on Studies of Alcohol and Drugs, 76, 95–105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tran, A. G. (2014). Family contexts: Parental experiences of discrimination and child mental health. American Journal of Community Psychology, 53(1–2), 37–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (n.d.). Race/Color discrimination. Retrieved from https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/types/race_color.cfm
   Google Scholar
• Walker, R., Francis, D., Brody, G., Simons, R., Cutrona, C., & Gibbons, F. (2017). A longitudinal study of racial discrimination and risk for death ideation in African American Youth. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 47(1), 86–102.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker, R. L., Salami, T. K., Carter, S. E., & Flowers, K. (2014). Perceived racism and suicide ideation: Mediating role of depression but moderating role of religiosity among African American adults. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 44(5), 548–559.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White-Johnson, R. L., Ford, K. R., & Sellers, R. M. (2010). Parental racial socialization profiles: Association with demographic factors, racial discrimination, childhood socialization, and racial identity. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16(2), 237–247. doi:10.1037/a0016111
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar