Publication Cover
Archives of Physiology and Biochemistry
The Journal of Metabolic Diseases
Volume 130, 2024 - Issue 3
276
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Articles

Clinical outcomes of multidimensional association of type 2 diabetes mellitus, COVID-19 and sarcopenia: an algorithm and scoping systematic evaluation

, , &
Pages 342-360 | Received 15 Mar 2022, Accepted 31 May 2022, Published online: 15 Jun 2022

References

  • Abbatecola, A.M., et al., 2011. Discovering pathways of sarcopenia in older adults: a role for insulin resistance on mitochondria dysfunction. The journal of nutrition, health & aging, 15 (10), 890–895.
  • Aguila, E.J.T., Lontok, M.A.D., and Francisco, C.P.D., 2020. Follow your gut: challenges in nutritional therapy during the COVID-19 pandemic. Clinical gastroenterology and hepatology, 18 (11), 2638–2639.
  • Al-Taie, A., and Koseoğlu, A., 2021. Dual impact from coincide potential complications of cancer therapy and sarcopenia: a narrative review. OCP, 17 (2), 1–24.
  • Al-Taie, A., and Victoria, A.O., 2020. Supplementary medicines and antioxidants in viral infections: a review of proposed effects for COVID-19. BBRJ, 4 (5), 19.
  • Bakilan, F., et al., 2021. The effect of covid-19 pandemic on sarcopenia, quality of life and pain: a one-year follow-up st udy. Turkish journal of geriatrics, 24 (3), 330–341.
  • Barazzoni, R., et al., 2020. ESPEN expert statements and practical guidance for nutritional management of individuals with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Clinical nutrition, 39 (6), 1631–1638.
  • Bellelli, G., et al., 2020. Frailty index predicts poor outcome in COVID-19 patients. Intensive care medicine, 46 (8), 1634–1636.,.
  • Bello-Chavolla, O.Y., et al., 2020. Predicting mortality due to SARS-CoV-2: a mechanistic score relating obesity and diabetes to COVID-19 outcomes in Mexico. Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism., 105 (8), dgaa346.
  • Berchtold, L.A., et al., 2016. Cytokines and pancreatic β-Cell apoptosis. Advances in clinical chemistry, 75, 99–158.
  • Beretta, M.V., et al., 2020. Sarcopenia and Type 2 diabetes mellitus as predictors of 2-year mortality after hospital discharge in a cohort of hospitalized adults. Diabetes research and clinical practice, 159, 107969.
  • Bouchi, R., et al., 2017. Insulin treatment attenuates decline of muscle mass in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes. Calcified tissue international, 101 (1), 1–8.
  • Bouchi, R., et al., 2017. Sarcopenia is associated with incident albuminuria in patients with type 2 diabetes: a retrospective observational study. Journal of diabetes investigation, 8 (6), 783–787.
  • Cariou, B., et al., 2020. Phenotypic characteristics and prognosis of inpatients with COVID-19 and diabetes: the CORONADO study. Diabetologia, 63 (8), 1500–1515.
  • CDC COVID-19 Response Team, 2020. Preliminary estimates of the prevalence of selected underlying health conditions among patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 – United States, February 12–March 28, 2020. Morbidity and mortality weekly report, 69 (13), 382–386.
  • Çeliker, M., Selçuk, M.Y., and Olt, S., 2018. Sarcopenia in diabetic nephropathy: a cross-sectional study. Romanian journal of internal medicine, 56 (2), 102–108.
  • Chen, G., et al., 2020. Clinical and immunological features of severe and moderate Coronavirus disease 2019. The journal of clinical investigation, 130 (5), 2620–2629.
  • Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2020. The epidemiological characteristics of an outbreak of 2019 novel coronavirus diseases (COVID-19) in China. Chinese journal of epidemiology, 2020, 145–151.
  • Cruz-Jentoft, A.J., et al., 2010. Sarcopenia: European consensus on definition and diagnosis: report of the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in older people. Age and Ageing, 39 (4), 412–423.
  • Cruz-Jentoft, A.J., et al., 2019. Sarcopenia: revised European consensus on definition and diagnosis. Age ageing, 48 (1), 16e31.
  • Cui, M., et al., 2020. A cross-sectional study: associations between sarcopenia and clinical characteristics of patients with type 2 diabetes. Medicine, 99 (2), e18708.
  • Cummings, M.J., et al., 2020. Epidemiology, clinical course, and outcomes of critically ill adults with COVID-19 in New York City: a prospective cohort study. The lancet, 395 (10239), 1763–1770.
  • D’Onofrio, N., et al., 2021. Glycated ACE2 receptor in diabetes: open door for SARS-COV-2 entry in cardiomyocyte. Cardiovascular diabetology, 20 (1), 99.
  • de Freitas, M.M., et al., 2020. Difference in sarcopenia prevalence and associated factors according to 2010 and 2018 European consensus (EWGSOP) in elderly patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Experimental gerontology, 132, 110835.
  • de Rekeneire, N., et al., 2006. Diabetes, hyperglycemia, and inflammation in older individuals: the health, aging and body composition study. Diabetes care, 29 (8), 1902–1908.
  • Deshpande, A.D., Harris-Hayes, M., and Schootman, M., 2008. Epidemiology of diabetes and diabetes-related complications. Physical therapy, 88 (11), 1254–1264.
  • Docherty, A.B., et al., 2020. Features of 20 133 UK patients in hospital with covid-19 using the ISARIC WHO clinical characterisation protocol: prospective observational cohort study. BMJ, 369, m1985.
  • Drucker, D.J., 2020. Coronavirus infections and Type 2 diabetes-shared pathways with therapeutic implications. Endocrine reviews, 41 (3), bnaa011.
  • Evans, W.J., and Lexell, J., 1995. Human aging, muscle mass, and fiber type composition. The Journals of gerontology series A, 50A (Special), 11–16.
  • Fernandez, C., et al., 2018. Plasma levels of the proprotein convertase furin and incidence of diabetes and mortality. Journal of internal medicine, 284 (4), 377–387.
  • Fukuoka, Y., et al., 2019. Importance of physical evaluation using skeletal muscle mass index and body fat percentage to prevent sarcopenia in elderly Japanese diabetes patients. Journal of diabetes investigation, 10 (2), 322–330.
  • Fung, F.Y., et al., 2019. Prevalence of and factors associated with sarcopenia among multi-ethnic ambulatory older Asians with type 2 diabetes mellitus in a primary care setting. BMC geriatrics, 19 (1), 122.
  • Garbati, M.A., et al., 2016. A comparative study of clinical presentation and risk factors for adverse outcome in patients hospitalised with acute respiratory disease due to MERS coronavirus or other causes. PLoS one, 11 (11), e0165978.
  • Gfp, A., et al., 2020. Myosteatosis and prognosis in cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis. Critical reviews in oncology/hematology, 145, 102839.
  • Ghosh, A., et al., 2021. Glycemic parameters in patients with new-onset diabetes during COVID-19 pandemic are more severe than in patients with new-onset diabetes before the pandemic: NOD COVID India Study. Diabetes & metabolic syndrome , 15 (1), 215–215220.
  • Giraudo, C., et al., 2021. Reduced muscle mass as predictor of intensive care unit hospitalization in COVID-19 patients. PLoS one, 16 (6), e0253433.
  • Gomes, M.J., et al., 2017. Skeletal muscle aging: influence of oxidative stress and physical exercise. Oncotarget, 8 (12), 20428–20440.
  • Goyal, R., et al., 2012. Evaluation of TNF-α and IL-6 levels in obese and non-obese diabetics: pre- and postinsulin effects. North American journal of medical sciences, 4 (4), 180–184.
  • Guan, W.J., et al., 2020. China medical treatment expert group for COVID-19. Comorbidity and its impact on 1590 patients with COVID-19 in China: a nationwide analysis. European respiratory journal, 55 (5), 2000547.
  • Guerrero, N., et al., 2016. Premature loss of muscle mass and function in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes research and clinical practice, 117, 32–38.
  • Gupta, P., et al., 2017. Association between the severity of diabetic retinopathy and falls in an Asian population with diabetes: the Singapore Epidemiology of Eye Diseases Study. JAMA ophthalmology, 135 (12), 1410–1416.
  • Haddad, F., et al., 2005. IL-6-induced skeletal muscle atrophy. Journal of applied physiology, 98 (3), 911–917.
  • Hamer, M., and Molloy, G. J., 2009. Association of C-reactive protein and muscle strength in the English longitudinal study of ageing. Age, 31 (3), 171–177.
  • Han, P., et al., 2016. Incidence, risk factors, and the protective effect of high body mass index against Sarcopenia in Suburb-Dwelling elderly Chinese populations. The journal of nutrition, health and aging, 20 (10), 1056–1060.
  • Haraj, N.E., et al., 2021. Nutritional status assessment in patients with Covid-19 after discharge from the intensive care unit. Clinical nutrition ESPEN, 41, 423–428.
  • Hasegawa, Y., et al., 2021. Effect of COVID-19 pandemic on the change in skeletal muscle mass in older patients with Type 2 diabetes: a retrospective cohort study. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18 (8), 4188.
  • Hewitt, J., et al., 2020. The effect of frailty on survival in patients with COVID-19 (COPE): a multicentre, European, observational cohort study. The lancet, 5 (8), e444–e451.
  • Hong, K.S., et al., 2020. Clinical features and outcomes of 98 patients hospitalized with SARS-CoV-2 infection in Daegu, South Korea: a brief descriptive study. Yonsei medical journal, 61 (5), 431–437.
  • Hong, S., et al., 2017. Relative muscle mass and the risk of incident type 2 diabetes: a cohort study. PLoS One, 12 (11), e0188650.
  • Hussain, A., Bhowmik, B., and do Vale Moreira, N. C., 2020. COVID-19 and diabetes: knowledge in progress. Diabetes research and clinical practice, 162, 108142.
  • Ida, S., et al., 2018. Association between dynapenia and decline in higher-level functional capacity in older men with diabetes. Geriatrics & gerontology international, 18 (9), 1393–1397.
  • Janssen, I., Heymsfield, S. B., and Ross, R., 2002. Low relative skeletal muscle mass (sarcopenia) in older persons is associated with functional impairment and physical disability. Journal of the american geriatrics society, 50 (5), 889–896.
  • Kaji, A., et al., 2019. Sarcopenia is associated with tongue pressure in older patients with type 2 diabetes: a cross-sectional study of the KAMOGAWA-DM cohort study. Geriatrics & gerontology international, 19 (2), 153–158.
  • Kalyani, R.R., Corriere, M., and Ferrucci, L., 2014. Age-related and disease-related muscle loss: the effect of diabetes, obesity, and other diseases. The lancet, 2 (10), 819–829.
  • Kara, Ö., et al., 2021. Grip strength as a predictor of disease severity in hospitalized COVID-19 patients. Heart & lung, 50 (6), 743–747.
  • Khateeb, J., et al., 2019. Diabetes and Lung Disease: a neglected relationship. The review of diabetic studies, 15, 1–15.
  • Kim, J.W., et al., 2021. Prognostic implication of baseline sarcopenia for length of Hospital Stay and survival in patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019. The journals of gerontology, 76 (8), e110–e116.
  • King, D. E., et al., 2003. C-reactive protein and glycemic control in adults with diabetes. Diabetes care, 26 (5), 1535–1539.
  • Klein, O.L., et al., 2016. Hispanics/Latinos with type 2 diabetes have functional and symptomatic pulmonary impairment Mirroring kidney microangiopathy: findings from the Hispanic community health Study/Study of Latinos (HCHS/SOL). Diabetes care, 39 (11), 2051–2057.
  • Klekotka, R.B., Mizgała, E., and Król, W., 2015. The etiology of lower respiratory tract infections in people with diabetes. Pneumonologia i Alergologia Polska, 83 (5), 401–408.
  • Kumar, A., et al., 2020. Is diabetes mellitus associated with mortality and severity of COVID-19? A meta-analysis. Diabetes & metabolic syndrome , 14 (4), 535–545.
  • Kwan, P., 2013. Sarcopenia, a neurogenic syndrome? Journal of aging research, 2013, 791679.
  • Landi, F., et al., 2012. Sarcopenia as a risk factor for falls in elderly individuals: results from the ilSIRENTE study. Clinical nutrition, 31 (5), 652–658.
  • Lang, C.H., et al., 2002. TNF-alpha impairs heart and skeletal muscle protein synthesis by altering translation initiation. American journal of physiology, 282 (2), E336–347.,
  • Laviada-Molina, H. A., et al., 2020. Working hypothesis for glucose metabolism and SARS-CoV-2 replication: interplay between the hexosamine pathway and interferon RF5 triggering hyperinflammation. role of BCG Vaccine? Frontiers in endocrinology, 11, 514.
  • Lee, C.G., et al., 2011. Association between insulin resistance and lean mass loss and fat mass gain in older men without diabetes mellitus. Journal of the American geriatrics society, 59 (7), 1217–1224.
  • Levy, D., et al., 2022. Long term follow-up of sarcopenia and malnutrition after hospitalization for COVID-19 in conventional or intensive care units. Nutrients, 14 (4), 912.
  • Li, D., 2020. Clinical characteristics of 80 patients with COVID-19 in Zhuzhou City. Chinese prevention and control, 19 (3), 227–233.
  • Liao, Y.H., et al., 2020. Novel molecular evidence related to COVID-19 in patients with Diabetes Mellitus. Journal of clinical medicine, 9 (12), 3962.
  • Liccini, A., and Malmstrom, T.K., 2016. Frailty and sarcopenia as predictors of adverse health outcomes in persons with diabetes Mellitus. Journal of the American medical directors association, 17 (9), 846–851.
  • Liu, B., et al., 2020. Can we use interleukin-6 (IL-6) blockade for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)-induced cytokine release syndrome (CRS)? Journal of autoimmunity, 111, 102452.
  • Liu, F., et al., 2020. Prognostic value of interleukin-6, C-reactive protein, and procalcitonin in patients with COVID-19. Journal of clinical virology, 127, 104370.
  • Liu, Y., et al., 2019. Resistance exercise intensity is correlated with attenuation of hba1c and insulin in patients with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. International journal of environmental research and public health, 16 (1), 140.
  • Luo, P., et al., 2020. Tocilizumab treatment in COVID-19: a single center experience. Journal of medical virology, 92 (7), 814–818.
  • Ma, Y., et al., 2020. The association between frailty and severe disease among COVID-19 patients aged over 60 years in China: a prospective cohort study. BMC medicine, 18 (1), 274.
  • Ma, Y., et al., 2021. The role of SARC-F scale in predicting progression risk of COVID-19 in elderly patients: a prospective cohort study in Wuhan. BMC geriatr, 21 (1), 355.
  • Makki, K., Froguel, P., and Wolowczuk, I., 2013. Adipose tissue in obesity-related inflammation and insulin resistance: cells, cytokines, and chemokines. ISRN inflammation, 2013, 139239.
  • Manda, C.M., et al., 2020. Handgrip strength predicts new prediabetes cases among adults: a prospective cohort study. Preventive medicine reports, 17, 101056.
  • Manrique-Espinoza, B., et al., 2017. Sarcopenia is associated with physical and mental components of health-related quality of life in older adults. Journal of the American medical directors association, 18 (7), 636.e1–e5.
  • Marfella, R., et al., 2022a. Glycaemic control is associated with SARS-CoV-2 breakthrough infections in vaccinated patients with type 2 diabetes. Nature communications, 13 (1), 2318.
  • Marfella, R., et al., 2020. Negative impact of hyperglycaemia on tocilizumab therapy in Covid-19 patients. Diabetes & metabolism, 46 (5), 403–405.
  • Marfella, R., et al., 2021. SARS-COV-2 colonizes coronary thrombus and impairs heart microcirculation bed in asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 positive subjects with acute myocardial infarction. Critical Care, 25 (1), 217.
  • Marfella, R., et al., 2022b. Does poor glycaemic control affect the immunogenicity of the COVID-19 vaccination in patients with type 2 diabetes: The CAVEAT study. Diabetes, obesity & metabolism, 24 (1), 160–165.
  • Matarese, A., et al., 2020. miR-98 regulates TMPRSS2 expression in human endothelial cells: key implications for COVID-19. Biomedicines, 8 (11), 462.
  • McDermott, M.M., 2015. Lower extremity manifestations of peripheral artery disease: the pathophysiologic and functional implications of leg ischemia. Circulation research, 116 (9), 1540–1550.
  • McDermott, M.M., et al., 2004. Leg strength in peripheral arterial disease: associations with disease severity and lower-extremity performance. Journal of vascular surgery, 39 (3), 523–530.
  • McGovern, J., et al., 2021. Relation between body composition, systemic inflammatory response, and clinical outcomes in patients admitted to an urban teaching hospital with COVID-19. The journal of nutrition, 151 (8), 2236–2244.
  • Melton, L.J., 3rd., et al., 2000. Epidemiology of sarcopenia. Journal of the American geriatrics society, 48 (6), 625–630.
  • Mesinovic, J., et al., 2019. Sarcopenia and type 2 diabetes mellitus: a bidirectional relationship. Diabetes, metabolic syndrome and obesity, 12, 1057–1072.
  • Moctezuma-Velázquez, P., et al., 2021. Low thoracic skeletal muscle area is not associated with negative outcomes in patients With COVID-19. American journal of physical medicine & rehabilitation, 100 (5), 413–418.
  • Mori, H., Kuroda, A., et al., 2019. Association of accumulated advanced glycation end-products with a high prevalence of sarcopenia and dynapenia in patients with type 2 diabetes. Journal of diabetes investigation, 10 (5), 1332–1340.
  • Morino, K., et al., 2005. Reduced mitochondrial density and increased IRS-1 serine phosphorylation in muscle of insulin-resistant offspring of type 2 diabetic parents. The journal of clinical investigation, 115 (12), 3587–3593.
  • Morley, J.E., 2008. Sarcopenia: diagnosis and treatment. The journal of nutrition, health & aging, 12 (7), 452–456.
  • Morley, J. E., Kalantar-Zadeh, K., and Anker, S.D., 2020. COVID-19: a major cause of cachexia and sarcopenia? Journal of cachexia, sarcopenia and muscle, 11 (4), 863–865.
  • Murai, J., et al., 2018. Low muscle quality in Japanese type 2 diabetic patients with visceral fat accumulation. Cardiovascular diabetology, 17 (1), 112.
  • Murata, Y., et al., 2018. Sarcopenia in elderly patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: prevalence and related clinical factors. Diabetology international, 9 (2), 136–142.
  • Nelke, C., et al., 2019. Skeletal muscle as potential central link between sarcopenia and immune senescence. EBioMedicine, 49, 381–388.
  • Nikpouraghdam, M., et al., 2020. Epidemiological characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients in IRAN: a single center study. Journal of clinical virology, 127, 104378.
  • Nomura, T., et al., 2018. Diabetic polyneuropathy is a risk factor for decline of lower extremity strength in patients with type 2 diabetes. Journal of diabetes investigation, 9 (1), 186–192.
  • Okamura, T., et al., 2019. High brain natriuretic peptide is associated with sarcopenia in patients with type 2 diabetes: a cross-sectional study of KAMOGAWA-DM cohort study. Endocrine journal, 66 (4), 369–377.
  • Okamura, T., et al., 2019. Shortage of energy intake rather than protein intake is associated with sarcopenia in elderly patients with type 2 diabetes: a cross-sectional study of the KAMOGAWA-DM cohort. Journal of diabetes., 11 (6), 477–483.
  • Ong, P.S., et al., 2016. Judicious toggling of mTOR activity to combat insulin resistance and cancer: current evidence and perspectives. Frontiers in pharmacology, 7, 395.
  • Osaka, T., et al., 2018. Decreased the creatinine to cystatin C ratio is a surrogate marker of sarcopenia in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes research and clinical practice, 139, 52–58.
  • Pal, R., and Bhadada, S.K., 2020. COVID-19 and diabetes mellitus: an unholy interaction of two pandemics. Diabetes & metabolic syndrome, 14 (4), 513–517.
  • Palanisami, S., and Kulkarni, V., 2016. The association of muscle mass and body mass index in elderly diabetic patients attending tertiary care center in Bangalore. International journal of medical students, 4 (3), 96–99.
  • Park, S.W., et al., 2007. Accelerated loss of skeletal muscle strength in older adults with type 2 diabetes: the health, aging, and body composition study. Diabetes care, 30 (6), 1507–1512.
  • Pechmann, L.M., et al., 2020. Sarcopenia in Type 2 diabetes mellitus: a cross-sectional observational study. International journal of endocrinology, 2020, 1–9.
  • Perry, B.D., et al., 2016. Muscle atrophy in patients with Type 2 diabetes Mellitus: roles of inflammatory pathways, physical activity and exercise. Exercise immunology review, 22, 94–109.
  • Piotrowicz, K., et al., 2021. Post-COVID-19 acute sarcopenia: physiopathology and management. Aging clinical and experimental research, 33 (10), 2887–2898.
  • Price, C.L., et al., 2010. Methylglyoxal modulates immune responses: relevance to diabetes. Journal of cellular and molecular medicine, 14 (6B), 1806–1815.
  • Ramos, A., et al., 2021. Impact of COVID-19 on nutritional status during the first wave of the pandemic. Clinical nutrition, 2021, S0261-5614(21)00238-7.
  • Reginster, J.Y., et al., 2016. Osteoporosis and sarcopenia: two diseases or one? Current opinion in clinical nutrition and metabolic care, 19 (1), 31–36.
  • Richardson, Set al., 2020. Presenting characteristics, comorbidities, and outcomes among 5700 patients hospitalized with COVID-19 in the New York City Area. JAMA, 323 (20), 2052.
  • Riesgo, H., et al., 2021. Prevalence of risk of malnutrition and risk of sarcopenia in a reference hospital for COVID-19: relationship with mortality. Annals of nutrition and metabolism, 77 (6), 324–329.
  • Roncon, L., et al., 2020. Diabetic patients with COVID-19 infection are at higher risk of ICU admission and poor short-term outcome. Journal of clinical virology, 127, 104354.
  • Rosenberg, I.H., 1997. Sarcopenia: origins and clinical relevance. The journal of nutrition, 127 (5 Suppl), 990S–991S.
  • Rosenberg, I., 1989. Summary comments: epidemiological and methodological problems in determining nutritional status of older persons. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 50 (5), 1231–1233.
  • Samuel, V.T., and Shulman, G.I., 2016. The pathogenesis of insulin resistance: integrating signaling pathways and substrate flux. The journal of clinical investigation, 126 (1), 12–22.
  • Sardu, C., et al., 2020. Hyperglycaemia on admission to hospital and COVID-19. Diabetologia, 63 (11), 2486–2487.
  • Sardu, C., et al., 2020a. Outcomes in patients with hyperglycemia affected by COVID-19: can we do more on glycemic control? Diabetes care, 43 (7), 1408–1415.
  • Sardu, C., et al., 2020b. Impact of diabetes mellitus on clinical outcomes in patients affected by Covid-19. Cardiovascular diabetology, 19 (1), 76.
  • Sardu, C., et al., 2022. Effect of hyperglycemia on COVID-19 outcomes: vaccination efficacy, disease severity, and molecular mechanisms. Journal of clinical medicine, 11 (6), 1564.
  • Sartori, R., Romanello, V., and Sandri, M., 2021. Mechanisms of muscle atrophy and hypertrophy: implications in health and disease. Nature communications, 12 (1), 330.
  • Sawaya, Y., et al., 2020. Association between skeletal muscle mass index and lung function/respiratory muscle strength in older adults requiring long-term care or support. Journal of physical therapy science, 32 (11), 754–759.
  • Sayer, A.A., et al., 2005. Type 2 diabetes, muscle strength, and impaired physical function: the tip of the iceberg? Diabetes care, 28 (10), 2541–2542.
  • Sazlina, S.G., et al., 2020. The prevalence and factors associated with sarcopenia among community living elderly with type 2 diabetes mellitus in primary care clinics in Malaysia. PLoS one, 15 (5), e0233299.
  • Schiaffino, S., et al., 2021. CT-derived chest muscle metrics for outcome prediction in patients with COVID-19. Radiology, 300 (2), E328–E336.
  • Schoen, K., et al., 2019. Spectrum of clinical and radiographic findings in patients with diagnosis of H1N1 and correlation with clinical severity. BMC infectious diseases, 19 (1), 964.
  • Shi, Q., et al., 2020. Clinical characteristics and risk factors for mortality of COVID-19 patients with diabetes in Wuhan, China: a two-center, retrospective study. Diabetes care, 43 (7), 1382–1391.
  • Short, K.R., et al., 2005. Decline in skeletal muscle mitochondrial function with aging in humans. Proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the United States of America, 102 (15), 5618–5623.
  • Shou, J., Chen, P.J., and Xiao, W.H., 2020. Mechanism of increased risk of insulin resistance in aging skeletal muscle. Diabetology & metabolic syndrome, 12, 14.
  • Singh, A.K., et al., 2020. Diabetes in COVID-19: prevalence, pathophysiology, prognosis and practical considerations. Diabetes & metabolic syndrome, 14 (4), 303–310.
  • Sonmez, A., et al., 2021. Clinical characteristics and outcomes of COVID-19 in patients with type 2 diabetes in Turkey: a nationwide study (TurCoviDia). Journal of diabetes., 13 (7), 585–595.
  • Souza, A.B.F., et al., 2019. Association between sarcopenia and diabetes in community dwelling elderly in the Amazon region – Viver Mais Project. Archives of gerontology and geriatrics, 83, 121–125.
  • Srikanthan, P., and Karlamangla, A.S., 2011. Relative muscle mass is inversely associated with insulin resistance and prediabetes. Findings from the third National Health and nutrition examination survey. The journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism, 96 (9), 2898–2903.
  • Sugimoto, K., et al., 2019. Hyperglycemia in non-obese patients with type 2 diabetes is associated with low muscle mass: the multicenter study for clarifying evidence for sarcopenia in patients with diabetes Mellitus. Journal of diabetes investigation, 10 (6), 1471–1479.
  • Sun, C., et al., 2022. Respiratory strength and pectoralis muscle mass as measures of sarcopenia: relation to outcomes in resected non-small cell lung cancer. The journal of thoracic and cardiovascular surgery, 163 (3), 779–787.e2.
  • Sundar, V., et al., 2021. Sarcopenia with co-existent type 2 diabetes mellitus is associated with worse clinical outcomes among hospitalised cardiac patients. Clinical nutrition Espen, 46, 380–385.
  • Sung, M.J., et al., 2020. Sarcopenia is independently associated with the degree of liver fibrosis in patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Gut and liver, 14 (5), 626–635.
  • Tamura, Y., et al., 2018. Prevalence of frailty, cognitive impairment, and sarcopenia in outpatients with cardiometabolic disease in a frailty clinic. BMC geriatrics, 18 (1), 264.
  • Tehrani, S., et al., 2021. Risk factors for death in adult COVID-19 patients: frailty predicts fatal outcome in older patients. International journal of infectious diseases, 102, 415–421.
  • Thiebaud, D., et al., 1982. The effect of graded doses of insulin on total glucose uptake, glucose oxidation, and glucose storage in man. Diabetes, 31 (11), 957–963.
  • Trierweiler, H., et al., 2018. Sarcopenia: a chronic complication of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetology & metabolic syndrome, 10 (1), 25.,
  • van Vught, L.A., et al., 2016. Admission hyperglycemia in critically ill sepsis patients: association with outcome and host response. Critical care medicine, 44 (7), 1338–1346.
  • Velázquez-Alva, M.C., et al., 2020. Sarcopenia, nutritional status and type 2 diabetes mellitus: a cross-sectional study in a group of Mexican women residing in a nursing home. Nutrition & dietetics. 77 (5), 515–522.
  • Wan, S., et al., 2020. Clinical features and treatment of COVID-19 patients in northeast Chongqing. Journal of medical virology, 92 (7), 797–806.
  • Wang, D., et al., 2020. Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 Novel Coronavirus-infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA, 323 (11), 1061–1069.
  • Wang, T., et al., 2016. Type 2 diabetes mellitus is associated with increased risks of sarcopenia and pre-sarcopenia in Chinese elderly. Scientific reports, 6, 38937.
  • Wang, X.H., and Mitch, W.E., 2014. Mechanisms of muscle wasting in chronic kidney disease. Nature reviews. nephrology, 10 (9), 504–516.
  • Welch, A.A., Hayhoe R.P.G., and Cameron, D., 2020. The relationships between sarcopenic skeletal muscle loss during ageing and macronutrient metabolism, obesity and onset of diabetes. The proceedings of the nutrition society, 79 (1), 158–169.
  • Wierdsma, N.J., et al., 2021. Poor nutritional status, risk of sarcopenia and nutrition related complaints are prevalent in COVID-19 patients during and after hospital admission. Clinical nutrition ESPEN, 43, 369–376.
  • Wilkinson, T.J., et al., 2022. Sarcopenic obesity and the risk of hospitalization or death from coronavirus disease 2019: findings from UK Biobank. JCSM rapid communications, 5 (1), 3–9.
  • Wiriya, B., et al., 2019. Prevalence and predictors of sarcopenia in older people with Type 2 diabetes. Pacific rim international journal of nursing research, 23 (3), 297–309.
  • Wu, J., et al., 2020. Skeletal muscle antagonizes antiviral CD8þ T cell exhaustion. Science advances., 6 (24), eaba3458.
  • Yan, Y., et al., 2020. Clinical characteristics and outcomes of patients with severe Covid-19 with diabetes. BMJ open diabetes research & care, 8 (1), e001343.
  • Yi, X., et al., 2021. Myosteatosis predicting risk of transition to severe COVID-19 infection. Clinical nutrition, 2021, S0261-5614(21)00281-8.
  • Yin, Y., et al., 2021. The epidemiology, pathophysiological mechanisms, and management toward COVID-19 patients with Type 2 diabetes: a systematic review. Primary care diabetes, 15 (6), 899–909.
  • Yoon, J.W., et al., 2016. Hyperglycemia is associated with impaired muscle quality in older men with diabetes: the Korean longitudinal study on health and aging. Diabetes & metabolism journal, 40 (2), 140–146.
  • Young, B.E., et al., 2020. Epidemiologic features and clinical course of patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 in Singapore. JAMA, 323 (15), 1488–1494.
  • Zamboni, M., et al., 2008. Sarcopenic obesity: a new category of obesity in the elderly. Nutrition, metabolism, and cardiovascular diseases, 18 (5), 388–395.
  • Zhang, J.J., et al., 2020. Clinical characteristics of 140 patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 in Wuhan, China. Allergy, 75 (7), 1730–1741.
  • Zhou, L., Liu, C., and Yang, C., 2021. Comment on “COVID-19: a major cause of cachexia and sarcopenia” by Morley et al. Journal of cachexia, sarcopenia and muscle, 12 (1), 233–234.
  • Zhu, L., et al., 2020. Association of blood glucose control and outcomes in patients with COVID-19 and pre-existing Type 2 diabetes. Cell metabolism, 31 (6), 1068–1077.e3.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.