References
- Alzheimer’s Association. (2014). 2014 Alzheimer’s disease facts and figures. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 10(2), e47–e92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2014.02.001
- Arnsten, A. F. (2009). Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10(6), 410–422. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2648
- Bertrand, R. M., Saczynski, J. S., Mezzacappa, C., Hulse, M., Ensrud, K., & Fredman, L. (2012). Caregiving and cognitive function in older women: Evidence for the healthy caregiver hypothesis. Journal of Aging and Health, 24(1), 48–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264311421367
- Bremner, J. D. (1999). Does stress damage the brain? Biological Psychiatry, 45(7), 797–805. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(99)00009-8
- Brodaty, H., & Donkin, M. (2009). Family caregivers of people with dementia. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 11(2), 217–228.
- Cabeza, R., Daselaar, S. M., Dolcos, F., Prince, S. E., Budde, M., & Nyberg, L. (2004). Task-independent and task-specific age effects on brain activity during working memory, visual attention and episodic retrieval. Cerebral Cortex, 14(4), 364–375. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhg133
- Cacioppo, J. T., Poehlmann, K. M., Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Malarkey, W. B., Burleson, M. H., Berntson, G. G., & Glaser, R. (1998). Cellular immune responses to acute stress in female caregivers of dementia patients and matched controls. Health Psychology, 17(2), 182–189. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.17.2.182
- Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(2), 267–283. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.2.267
- Caswell, L. W., Vitaliano, P. P., Croyle, K. L., Scanlan, J. M., Zhang, J., & Daruwala, A. (2003). Negative associations of chronic stress and cognitive performance in older adult spouse caregivers. Experimental Aging Research, 29(3), 303–318. https://doi.org/10.1080/03610730303721
- Clyburn, L. D., Stones, M. J., Hadjistavropoulos, T., & Tuokko, H. (2000). Predicting caregiver burden and depression in Alzheimer’s disease. Journals of Gerontology Series B, 55(1), S2–S13. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/55.1.S2
- Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404
- De Vugt, M. E., Jolles, J., Van Osch, L., Stevens, F., Aalten, P., Lousberg, R., & Verhey, F. R. (2006). Cognitive functioning in spousal caregivers of dementia patients: Findings from the prospective MAASBED study. Age and Ageing, 35(2), 160–166. https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/afj044
- Dunsky, A., Abu-Rukun, M., Tsuk, S., Dwolatzky, T., Carasso, R., & Netz, Y. (2017). The effects of a resistance vs. an aerobic single session on attention and executive functioning in adults. PloS One, 12(4), e0176092. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0176092
- Eckert, M. A., Keren, N. I., Roberts, D. R., Calhoun, V. D., & Harris, K. C. (2010). Age-related changes in processing speed: Unique contributions of cerebellar and prefrontal cortex. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 4(10), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3389/neuro.09.010.2010
- Fahimi, F., Goh, W. B., Lee, T. S., & Guan, C. (2018). EEG predicts the attention level of elderly measured by RBANS. International Journal of Crowd Science, 2(3), 272–282. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCS-09-2018-0022
- Feise, R. J. (2002). Do multiple outcome measures require p-value adjustment?. Bmc Medical Research Methodology, 2(1), 8–11. doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-2-8.
- Folstein, M. F., Folstein, S. E., & McHugh, P. R. (1975). “Mini-mental state”: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12(3), 189–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6
- Fredman, L., Cauley, J. A., Hochberg, M., Ensrud, K. E., & Doros, G., & Study of Osteoporotic Fractures. (2010). Mortality associated with caregiving, general stress, and caregiving‐related stress in elderly women: Results of caregiver‐study of osteoporotic fractures. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 58(5), 937–943. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2010.02808.x.
- Fredman, L., Cauley, J. A., Satterfield, S., Simonsick, E., Spencer, S. M., Ayonayon, H. N., & Harris, T. B. (2008). Caregiving, mortality, and mobility decline: The health, aging, and body composition (Health ABC) study. Archives of Internal Medicine, 168(19), 2154–2162. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.168.19.2154
- Gianaros, P. J., Jennings, J. R., Sheu, L. K., Greer, P. J., Kuller, L. H., & Matthews, K. A. (2007). Prospective reports of chronic life stress predict decreased grey matter volume in the hippocampus. Neuroimage, 35(2), 795–803. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.10.045
- Gillespie, P., O’Shea, E., Cullinan, J., Buchanan, J., Bobula, J., Lacey, L., … Lawlor, B. (2015). Longitudinal costs of caring for people with Alzheimer’s disease. International Psychogeriatrics, 27(5), 847–856. https://doi.org/10.1017/S104161021400206
- Goldberg, T. E., Harvey, P. D., Wesnes, K. A., Snyder, P. J., & Schneider, L. S. (2015). Practice effects due to serial cognitive assessment: Implications for preclinical Alzheimer’s disease randomized controlled trials. Alzheimer’s & Dementia: Diagnosis, Assessment & Disease Monitoring, 1(1), 103–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dadm.2014.11.003
- Haley, W. E., Levine, E. G., Brown, S. L., & Bartolucci, A. A. (1987). Stress, appraisal, coping, and social support as predictors of adaptational outcome among dementia caregivers. Psychology and Aging, 2(4), 323–330. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.2.4.323
- Hansen, B. B., & Bowers, J. (2008). Covariate balance in simple, stratified and clustered comparative studies. Statistical Science, 23(2), 219–236. https://doi.org/10.1214/08-STS25
- Henson, R. N. (2003). Neuroimaging studies of priming. Progress in Neurobiology, 70(1), 53–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-0082(03)00086-8
- Iacus, S. M., King, G., & Porro, G. (2011). Multivariate matching methods that are monotonic imbalance bounding. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 106(493), 345–361. https://doi.org/10.1198/jasa.2011.tm09599
- Katz, S., Ford, A.B., Moskowitz, R.W., Jackson, B.A., & Yaffe, M.W. (1963). The index of ADL: A standardized measure of biological and psychosocial function. Jama, 185(12), 914–919. doi:10.1001/jama.1963.03060120024016
- Kirchner, W. K. (1958). Age differences in short-term retention of rapidly changing information. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55(4), 352–358. doi: 10.1037/h0043688
- Kirchner, W. K. (1958). Age differences in short-term retention of rapidly changing information. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55(4), 352–358. doi: 10.1037/h0043688
- Lawton, M. P., & Brody, E. M. (1969). Assessment of older people: Self-maintaining and instrumental activities of daily living. The Gerontologist, 9(3 3 Part 1), 179–186. doi:10.1093/geront/9.3_Part_1.179
- Lazarus, R. F., & Folkman, S. C. S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer.
- Lee, S., Kawachi, I., & Grodstein, F. (2004). Does caregiving stress affect cognitive function in older women? The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 192(1), 51–57. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.nmd.0000106000.02232.30
- Leszczynski, M. (2011). How does hippocampus contribute to working memory processing? Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 5(31), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2011.00168
- Lupien, S., Lecours, A. R., Lussier, I., Schwartz, G., Nair, N., & Meaney, M. J. (1994). Basal cortisol levels and cognitive deficits in human aging. Journal of Neuroscience, 14(5), 2893–2903. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.14-05-02893
- Lupien, S. J., Juster, R. P., Raymond, C., & Marin, M. F. (2018). The effects of chronic stress on the human brain: From neurotoxicity, to vulnerability, to opportunity. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology¸49, 91–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2018.02.001
- Lupien, S. J., Maheu, F., Tu, M., Fiocco, A., & Schramek, T. E. (2007). The effects of stress and stress hormones on human cognition: Implications for the field of brain and cognition. Brain and Cognition, 65(3), 209–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2007.02.007
- Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., & Heim, C. (2009). Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10(6), 434–445. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2639
- Mackenzie, C. S., Smith, M. C., Hasher, L., Leach, L., & Behl, P. (2007). Cognitive functioning under stress: Evidence from informal caregivers of palliative patients. Journal of Palliative Medicine, 10(3), 749–758. https://doi.org/10.1089/jpm.2006.0171
- Mackenzie, C. S., Wiprzycka, U. J., Hasher, L., & Goldstein, D. (2009). Associations between psychological distress, learning, and memory in spouse caregivers of older adults. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 64(6), 742–746. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbp076
- MacLeod, C. M. (1992). The Stroop task: The “gold standard” of attentional measures. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 121(1), 12–14. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.121.1.12
- Mahoney, A. M., Dalby, J. T., & King, M. C. (1998). Cognitive failures and stress. Psychological Reports, 82(3_suppl), 1432–1434. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1998.82.3c.1432
- Marshall, A. C., Cooper, N. R., Segrave, R., & Geeraert, N. (2015). The effects of long-term stress exposure on aging cognition: A behavioral and EEG investigation. Neurobiology of Aging, 36(6), 2136–2144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2015.02.026
- McEwen, B. S. (1998). Stress, adaptation, and disease: Allostasis and allostatic load. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 840(1), 33–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09546.x
- McEwen, B. S., & Magarinos, A. (1997). Stress effects on morphology and function of the hippocampus. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 821(1), 271–284. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb48286.x
- McEwen, B. S., & Sapolsky, R. M. (1995). Stress and cognitive function. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 5(2), 205–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/0959-4388(95)80028-X
- McGuinness, B., Barrett, S. L., Craig, D., Lawson, J., & Passmore, A. P. (2010). Attention deficits in Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 81(2), 157–159. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCS-09-2018-0022
- Melara, R. D., & Algom, D. (2003). Driven by information: A tectonic theory of Stroop effects. Psychological Review, 110(3), 422–471. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.110.3.422
- Mitchell, P. H., Powell, L., Blumenthal, J., Norten, J., Ironson, G., Pitula, C. R., Froelicher, E. S., Czajkowski, S., Youngblood, M., Huber, M., & Berkman, L. F. (2003). A short social support measure for patients recovering from myocardial infarction: The ENRICHD Social Support Inventory. Journal of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation and Prevention, 23(6), 398–403. https://doi.org/10.1097/00008483-200311000-00001
- Mittelman, M. S., Roth, D. L., Haley, W. E., & Zarit, S. H. (2004). Effects of a caregiver intervention on negative caregiver appraisals of behavior problems in patients with Alzheimer’s disease: Results of a randomized trial. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 59(1), P27–P34. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/59.1.P27
- Murman, D. L. (2015). The impact of age on cognition. Thieme Medical Publishers, 36(3), 111–121. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0035-1555115
- Nichols, E. A., Kao, Y. C., Verfaellie, M., & Gabrieli, J. D. (2006). Working memory and long‐term memory for faces: Evidence from fMRI and global amnesia for involvement of the medial temporal lobes. Hippocampus, 16(7), 604–616. https://doi.org/10.1002/hipo.20190
- O’Reilly, D., Connolly, S., Rosato, M., & Patterson, C. (2008). Is caring associated with an increased risk of mortality? A longitudinal study. Social Science & Medicine, 67(8), 1282–1290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.06.025
- O’Sullivan, M., Brennan, S., Lawlor, B. A., Hannigan, C., Robertson, I. H., & Pertl, M. M. (2019). Cognitive functioning among cognitively intact dementia caregivers compared to matched self-selected and population controls. Aging & Mental Health, 23(5), 566–573. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2018.1428937
- Oken, B. S., Fonareva, I., & Wahbeh, H. (2011). Stress-related cognitive dysfunction in dementia caregivers. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 24(4), 191–198. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891988711422524
- Pearlin, L. I., Mullan, J. T., Semple, S. J., & Skaff, M. M. (1990). Caregiving and the stress process: An overview of concepts and their measures. The Gerontologist, 30(5), 583–594. https://doi.org/0.1093/geront/30.5.583
- Pertl, M. M., Lawlor, B. A., Robertson, I. H., Walsh, C., & Brennan, S. (2015). Risk of cognitive and functional impairment in spouses of people with dementia: Evidence from the health and retirement study. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 28(4), 260–271. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891988715588834
- Preston, A. R., & Eichenbaum, H. (2013). Interplay of hippocampus and prefrontal cortex in memory. Current Biology, 23(17), R764–R773. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.05.041
- Preston, A. R., & Gabrieli, J. D. (2008). Dissociation between explicit memory and configural memory in the human medial temporal lobe. Cerebral Cortex, 18(9), 2192–2207. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhm245
- Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306
- Roediger, H. L., Weldon, M. S., Stadler, M. L., & Riegler, G. L. (1992). Direct comparison of two implicit memory tests: Word fragment and word stem completion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18(6), 1251–1269. https://doi.org/10.1037//0278-7393.18.6.1251
- Roediger, H. L., Weldon, M. S., Stadler, M. L., & Riegler, G. L. (1992). Direct comparison of two implicit memory tests: Word fragment and word stem completion.. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18(6), 1251–1269. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.18.6.1251
- Roth, D. L., Fredman, L., & Haley, W. E. (2015). Informal caregiving and its impact on health: A reappraisal from population-based studies. The Gerontologist, 55(2), 309–319. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnu177
- Rothman, K. J. (1990). No adjustments are needed for multiple comparisons. Epidemiology, 1(1), 43–46. doi:10.1097/00001648-199001000-00010
- Rubin, D. B. (2001). Using propensity scores to help design observational studies: Application to the tobacco litigation. Health Services and Outcomes Research Methodology, 2(3–4), 169–188. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020363010465
- Salthouse, T. A., & Babcock, R. L. (1991). Decomposing adult age differences in working memory. Developmental Psychology, 27(5), 763–776. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.27.5.763
- Salthouse, T. A., Toth, J., Daniels, K., Parks, C., Pak, R., Wolbrette, M., & Hocking, K. J. (2000). Effects of aging on efficiency of task switching in a variant of the trail making test. Neuropsychology, 14(1), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.14.1.102
- Schacter, D. L., & Buckner, R. L. (1998). Priming and the brain. Neuron, 20(2), 185–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80448-1
- Shephard, R. N., & Metzler, J. (1971). Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science, 171(3972), 701–703. https://doi.org/0.1126/science.171.3972.701
- Siegrist, M. (1995). Reliability of the stroop test with single-stimulus presentation. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 81 (3_suppl) 1295–1298. doi: 10.2466/pms.1995.81.3f.1295
- Stoet, G. (2010). PsyToolkit - A software package for programming psychological experiments using Linux. Behavior Research Methods, 42(4), 1096–1104. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.42.4.1096
- Stoet, G. (2017). PsyToolkit: A novel web-based method for running online questionnaires and reaction-time experiments. Teaching of Psychology, 44(1), 24–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628316677643
- Stuart, E. A. (2010). Matching methods for causal inference: A review and a look forward. Statistical Science: A Review Journal of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics, 25(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/0.1214/09-STS313
- Stuart, E.A. & Rubin, D.B. (2008). Best practices in quasi-experimental designs: Matching methods for causal inference. In Osborne, J., ed., Best practices in quantitative methods, (p. 155–176). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage..
- Thierry, A. M., Gioanni, Y., Dégénétais, E., & Glowinski, J. (2000). Hippocampo‐prefrontal cortex pathway: Anatomical and electrophysiological characteristics. Hippocampus, 10(4), 411–419. doi.10.1002/1098-1063(2000)10:4<411::AID-HIPO7>3.0.CO;2-A
- Thornton, M., & Travis, S. S (2003). Analysis of the reliability of the modified caregiver strain index. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 58(2), S127–S132. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/58.2.S127
- Thoemmes, F. (2012). Propensity score matching in SPSS. University of Tubingen.
- Thoemmes, F. J., & Kim, E. S. (2011). A systematic review of propensity score methods in the social sciences. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 46(1), 90–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2011.540475
- Tombaugh, T. N., & McIntyre, N. J. (1992). The mini‐mental state examination: A comprehensive review. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 40(9), 922–935. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.1992.tb01992.x
- Turken, U., Whitfield-Gabrieli, S., Bammer, R., Baldo, J. V., Dronkers, N. F., & Gabrieli, J. D. (2008). Cognitive processing speed and the structure of white matter pathways: Convergent evidence from normal variation and lesion studies. Neuroimage, 42(2), 1032–1044. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.03.057
- Vertes, R. P. (2006). Interactions among the medial prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and midline thalamus in emotional and cognitive processing in the rat. Neuroscience, 142(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.06.027
- Vitaliano, P. P., Echeverria, D., Yi, J., Phillips, P. E., Young, H., & Siegler, I. C. (2005). Psychophysiological mediators of caregiver stress and differential cognitive decline. Psychology and Aging, 20(3), 402–411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.06.027
- Vitaliano, P. P., Zhang, J., Young, H. M., Caswell, L. W., Scanlan, J. M., & Echeverria, D. (2009). Depressed mood mediates decline in cognitive processing speed in caregivers. The Gerontologist, 49(1), 12–22. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnp004
- Voss, J. L., & Paller, K. A. (2008). Brain substrates of implicit and explicit memory: The importance of concurrently acquired neural signals of both memory types. Neuropsychologia, 46(13), 3021–3029. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.07.010
- Wechsler, D. (1997). Wechsler memory scale (WMS-III) (Vol. 14). Psychological corporation.
- Wechsler, D. (2008). Wechsler adult intelligence scale–Fourth Edition (WAIS–IV). NCS Pearson.
- Wechsler D. Wechsler. Adult Intelligence Scale–Fourth Edition (WAIS–V) San Antonio, TX: NCS Pearson; 2008.
- Willis, S. L., Jay, G. M., Diehl, M., & Marsiske, M. (1992). Longitudinal change and prediction of everyday task competence in the elderly. Research on Aging, 14(1), 68–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027592141004
- Wolff, J. L., Spillman, B. C., Freedman, V. A., & Kasper, J. D. (2016). A national profile of family and unpaid caregivers who assist older adults with health care activities. JAMA Internal Medicine, 176(3), 372–379. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2015.7664
- Zarit, S., Orr, N. K., & Zarit, J. M. (1985). The hidden victims of Alzheimer’s disease: Families under stress. NYU Press.
- Zimmerman, M. E., Ezzati, A., Katz, M. J., Lipton, M. L., Brickman, A. M., Sliwinski, M. J., & Lipton, R. B. (2016). Perceived stress is differentially related to hippocampal subfield volumes among older adults. PloS One, 11(5), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154530