Utility of various WAIS-IV Digit Span indices for identifying noncredible performance validity among cognitively impaired and unimpaired examinees

References

• American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology. (2007). American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology (AACN) practice guidelines for neuropsychological assessment and consultation. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 21(2), 209–231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders – fifth edition (DSM-5). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Axelrod, B. N., Fichtenberg, N. L., Millis, S. R., & Wertheimer, J. C. (2006). Detecting incomplete effort with digit span from the wechsler adult intelligence scale – third edition. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 20(3), 513–523.10.1080/13854040590967117
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bain, K. M., & Soble, J. R. (2017). Validation of the Advanced Clinical Solutions Word Choice Test (WCT) in a mixed clinical sample: Establishing classification accuracy, sensitivity/specificity, and cutoff scores. Assessment. doi:10.1177/1073191117725172
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barhon, L. I., Batchelor, J., Meares, S., Chekaluk, E., & Shores, E. A. (2015). A comparison of the degree of effort involved in the TOMM and the ACS word choice test using a dual-task paradigm. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 22(2), 114–123.10.1080/23279095.2013.863775
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boone, K. B. (Ed.). (2007). Assessment of feigned cognitive impairment: A neuropsychological perspective. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Boone, K. B., Lu, P., Back, C., King, C., Lee, A., Philpott, L., … Warner-Chacon, K. (2002). Sensitivity and specificity of the Rey Dot Counting Test in patients with suspect effort and various clinical samples. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 17, 625–642.10.1093/arclin/17.7.625
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boone, K., Lu, P., & Herzberg, D. (2002). The Dot Counting Test. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.
   Google Scholar
• Bush, S. S., Ruff, R. M., Tröster, A. I., Barth, J. T., Koffler, S. P., Pliskin, N. H., … Silver, C. H. (2005). Symptom validity assessment: Practice issues and medical necessity: NAN Policy & Planning Committee. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20(4), 419–426.10.1016/j.acn.2005.02.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Constantinou, M., Bauer, L., Ashendorf, L., Fisher, J. M., & Mccaffrey, R. J. (2005). Is poor performance on recognition memory effort measures indicative of generalized poor performance on neuropsychological tests? Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20(2), 191–198.10.1016/j.acn.2004.06.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denning, J. (2012). Combining the Test of Memory Malingering Trial 1 (TOMM1) and Errors on the First 10 Items of the TOMM (TOMME10) with behavioral responses improves the prediction of test validity in a veteran sample. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27(6), 576–685.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dorociak, K. E., Schulze, E. T., Piper, L. E., Molokie, R. E., & Janecek, J. K. (2017). Performance validity testing in a clinical sample of adults with sickle cell disease. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 1–17.10.1080/13854046.2017.1339830
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer, J. E., Bachmann, L. M., & Jaeschke, R. (2003). A readers’ guide to the interpretation of diagnostic test properties: Clinical example of sepsis. Intensive Care Medicine, 29, 1043–1051.10.1007/s00134-003-1761-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, P. (2003). Green’s word memory test for windows: User’s manual. Edmonton: Green’s Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Green, P., Montijo, J., & Brockhaus, R. (2011). High specificity of the word memory test and medical symptom validity test in groups with severe verbal memory impairment. Applied Neuropsychology, 18(2), 86–94.10.1080/09084282.2010.523389
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, P., Rohling, M. L., Lees-Haley, P. R., & Allen, L. M., III (2001). Effort has a greater effect on test scores than severe brain injury in compensation claimants. Brain Injury, 15(12), 1045–1060.10.1080/02699050110088254
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greiffenstein, M. F., Baker, W. J., & Gola, T. (1994). Validation of malingered amnesia measures with a large clinical sample. Psychological Assessment, 6(3), 218.10.1037/1040-3590.6.3.218
   Google Scholar
• Heilbronner, R. L., Sweet, J. J., Morgan, J. E., Larrabee, G. J., Millis, S. R., Conference Participants 1. (2009). American academy of clinical neuropsychology consensus conference statement on the neuropsychological assessment of effort, response bias, and malingering. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(7), 1093–1129.10.1080/13854040903155063
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hilsabeck, R. C., Gordon, S. N., Hietpas-Wilson, T., & Zartman, A. L. (2011). Use of Trial 1 of the Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) as a screening measure of effort: Suggested discontinuation rules. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 25(7), 1228–1238.10.1080/13854046.2011.589409
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jasinski, L. J., Berry, D. T. R., Shandera, A. L., & Clark, J. A. (2011). Use of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Digit Span subtest for malingering detection: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33(3), 300–314.10.1080/13803395.2010.516743
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiewel, N. A., Wisdom, N. M., Bradshaw, M. R., Pastorek, N. J., & Strutt, A. M. (2012). A retrospective review of digit span-related effort indicators in probable Alzheimer’s disease patients. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 26(6), 965–974.10.1080/13854046.2012.694478
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larrabee, G. J. (2008). Aggregation across multiple indicators improves the detection of malingering: Relationship to likelihood ratios. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 22, 666–679.10.1080/13854040701494987
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larrabee, G. J. (2014). False-positive rates associated with the use of multiple performance and symptom validity tests. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 29(4), 364–373.10.1093/arclin/acu019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loring, D. W., Goldstein, F. C., Chen, C., Drane, D. L., Lah, J. J., Zhao, L., & Larrabee, G. J. (2016). False-positive error rates for reliable digit span and auditory verbal learning test performance validity measures in amnestic mild cognitive impairment and early Alzheimer disease. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 31(4), 313–331.10.1093/arclin/acw014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miele, A. S., Gunner, J. H., Lynch, J. K., & McCaffrey, R. J. (2011). Are embedded validity indices equivalent to free-standing symptom validity tests? Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27(1), 10–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, J. B., Millis, S. R., Rapport, L. J., Bashem, J. R., Hanks, R. A., & Axelrod, B. N. (2011). Detection of insufficient effort using the Advanced Clinical Solutions for the Wechsler Memory Scale. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 25(1), 160–172.10.1080/13854046.2010.533197
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Bryant, S. E., Engel, L. R., Kleiner, J. S., Vasterling, J. J. & Black, F. W. (2007). Test of memory malingering (Tomm) Trial 1 as a screening measure for insufficient effort. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 21(3), 511–21.10.1080/13854040600611368
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearson. (2009). Advanced clinical solutions for WAIS-IV and WMS-IV: Clinical and interpretive manual. San Antonio, TX: Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Reese, C. S., Suhr, J. A., & Riddle, T. L. (2012). Exploration of malingering indices in the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Digit Span subtest. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27(2), 176–181.10.1093/arclin/acr117
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rohling, M. L., Binder, L. M., Demakis, G. J., Larrabee, G. J., Ploetz, D. M., Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. (2011). A meta-analysis of neuropsychological outcome after mild traumatic brain injury: Re-analyses and reconsiderations of Binder et al. (1997), Frencham et al. (2005), and Pertab et al. (2009). The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 25, 608–623.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Román, G. C., Erkinjuntti, T., Wallin, A., Pantoni, L., & Chui, H. C. (2002). Subcortical ischaemic vascular dementia. The Lancet Neurology, 1(7), 426–436.10.1016/S1474-4422(02)00190-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schroeder, R. W., Twumasi-Ankrah, P., Baade, L. E., & Marshall, P. S. (2012). Reliable Digit Span: A systematic review and cross-validation study. Assessment, 19(1), 21–30.10.1177/1073191111428764
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schutte, C., & Axelrod, B. N. (2013). Use of embedded cognitive symptom validity measures in mild traumatic brain injury cases. In D. A. Carone (Ed.), Mild traumatic brain injury: Symptom validity assessment and malingering (pp. 159–181). New York, NY: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Spencer, R. J., Axelrod, B. N., Drag, L. L., Waldron-Perrine, B., Pangilinan, P. H., & Bieliauskas, L. A. (2013). WAIS-IV Reliable Digit Span is no more accurate than age corrected scaled score as an indicator of invalid performance in a veteran sample undergoing evaluation for mTBI. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 27(8), 1362–1372.10.1080/13854046.2013.845248
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spencer, R. J., Waldron-Perrine, B., Drag, L. L., Pangilinan, P. H., Axelrod, B. N., & Bieliauskas, L. A. (2017). Neuropsychological test validity in Veterans presenting with subjective complaints of ‘very severe’ cognitive symptoms following mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 31(1), 32–38.10.1080/02699052.2016.1218546
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suhr, J. A., & Barrash, J. (2007). Performance on standard attention, memory, and psychomotor speed tasks as indicators of malingering. In G .J. Larrabee (Ed.), Assessment of malingered neuropsychological deficits (pp. 131–170). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Swets, J. A. (1988). Measuring the accuracy of diagnostic systems. Science, 240(4857), 1285–1293.10.1126/science.3287615
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teichner, G., & Wagner, M. T. (2004). The Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM): Normative data from cognitively intact, cognitively impaired, and elderly patients with dementia. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 19(3), 455–464.10.1016/S0887-6177(03)00078-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tombaugh, T. N. (1996). Test of Memory Malingering: TOMM. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.
   Google Scholar
• Wechsler, D. (1997). WAIS-III administration and scoring manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Wechsler, D. (2008). WAIS-IV: Administration and scoring manual. New York, NY: The Psychological Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Whitney, K. A., Shepard, P. H., & Davis, J. J. (2013). WAIS-IV Digit Span variables: Are they valuable for use in predicting TOMM and MSVT failure? Applied Neuropsychology, 20(2), 83–94.10.1080/09084282.2012.670167
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, J. C., Sawyer, R. J., Roper, B. L., & Baughman, B. C. (2012). Expansion and re-examination of Digit Span effort indices on the WAIS-IV. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 26(1), 147–159.10.1080/13854046.2011.647083
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zenisek, R., Millis, S. R., Banks, S. J., & Miller, J. B. (2016). Prevalence of below-criterion Reliable Digit Span scores in a clinical sample of older adults. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 31(5), 426–433.10.1093/arclin/acw025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar