Norms matter: U.S. normative data under-estimate cognitive deficits in Norwegians with schizophrenia spectrum disorders

References

• Anda, L., Brønnick, K. S., Johnsen, E., Kroken, R. A., Jørgensen, H., & Løberg, E. (2016). The course of neurocognitive changes in acute psychosis: relation to symptomatic improvement. Plos One, 11(12). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0167390
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barder, H. E., Sundet, K., Rund, B. R., Evensen, J., Haahr, U., Hegelstad, W. T., …., Friis, S. (2013). Ten year neurocognitive trajectories in first-episode psychosis. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00643.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beatty, W. W., Mold, J. W., & Gontkovsky, S. T. (2003). RBANS performance: influences of sex and education. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25(8), 1065–1069. doi: 10.1076/jcen.25.8.1065.16732
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boone, K., Victor, T., Wen, J., Razani, J., & Ponton, M. (2007). The association between neuropsychological scores and ethnicity, language, and acculturation variables in a large patient population. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(3), 355–365. doi: 10.1016/j.acn.2007.01.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Census Bureau, U. S. (2017a). Levels of education: high school bachelor’s or higher. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/2017/comm/education-bachelors.html
   Google Scholar
• Census Bureau, U. S. (2017b). Ancestry in Madison, Wisconsin. Retrieved from https://statisticalatlas.com/place/Wisconsin/Madison/Ancestry
   Google Scholar
• Cheng, Y., Wu, W., Wang, J., Feng, W., Wu, X., & Li, C. (2011). Cinical research reliability and validity of the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status in community-dwelling elderly. Archives of Medical Science, 5, 850–857. doi: 10.5114/aoms.2011.25561
   Google Scholar
• Diaz-Asper, C. M., Schretlen, D. J., & Pearlson, G. D. (2004). How well does IQ predict neuropsychological test performance in normal adults?. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 10(01). doi: 10.1017/s1355617704101100
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dickerson, F., Boronow, J. J., Stallings, C., Origoni, A. E., Cole, S. K., & Yolken, R. H. (2004). Cognitive functioning in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: comparison of performance on the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status. Psychiatry Research, 129(1), 45–53. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2004.07.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duff, K., Schoenberg, M. R., Mold, J. W., Scott, J. G., & Adams, R. L. (2011). Gender differences on the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status subtests in older adults: Baseline and retest data. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33(4), 448–455. doi: 10.1080/13803395.2010.533156
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Egeland, J., Løvstad, M., Norup, A., Nybo, T., Persson, B. A., Rivera, D. F., … Arango-Lasprilla, J. C. (2016). Following international trends while subject to past traditions: neuropsychological test use in the Nordic countries. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 30(Suppl 1), 1479–1500. doi: 10.1080/13854046.2016.1237675
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Egeland, J., Sundet, K., Landrø, N., Rund, B. R., Asbjørnsen, A., Hugdahl, K., … Stordal, K. (2005). Validation of norms for Norwegian versions of attention and memory tests. Tidsskrift for Norsk Psykologforening, 42(2), 99–105.
   Google Scholar
• Elst, W. V., Boxtel, M. P., Breukelen, G. J., & Jolles, J. (2005). Rey’s verbal learning test: normative data for 1855 healthy participants aged 24–81 years and the influence of age, sex, education, and mode of presentation. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 24(03), 11. doi: 10.1017/s1355617705050344
   Google Scholar
• Egner, L. E., Sütterlin, S., & Lugo, R. G. (2016). Prevalence of Two-Syllable Digits Affecting Forward Digit Span Test Score. SAGE Open, 6(4), 215824401668182. doi: 10.1177/2158244016681825
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gogos, A., Joshua, N., & Rossell, S. L. (2010). Use of the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS) to Investigate Group and Gender Differences in Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 44(3), 220–229. doi: 10.3109/00048670903446882
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gold, J. M., Queern, C., Iannone, V. N., & Buchanan, R. W. (1999). Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status as a Screening Test in Schizophrenia, I: Sensitivity, Reliability, and Validity. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(12), 1944–1950. doi: 10.1176/ajp.156.12.1944
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gontkovsky, S. T., Mold, J. W., & Beatty, W. W. (2002). Age and educational influences on RBANS index scores in a nondemented geriatric sample. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 16(3), 258–263. doi: 10.1076/clin.16.3.258.13844
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, A., Garrick, T., Sheedy, D., Blake, H., Shores, A., & Harper, C. (2008). Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS): preliminary Australian normative data. Australian Journal of Psychology, 60(2), 72–79. doi: 10.1080/00049530701656257
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halleland, H. B., Haavik, J., & Lundervold, A. J. (2012). Set-shifting in adults with ADHD. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 18(04), 728–737. doi: 10.1017/S1355617712000355
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heaton, R. K. (2004). Revised comprehensive norms for an expanded Halstead–Reitan battery: Demographically adjusted neuropsychological norms for African American and Caucasian adults, professional manual. Lutz, Florida: Psychological Assessment Resources.
   Google Scholar
• Helle, S., Gjestad, R., Johnsen, E., Kroken, R. A., Jørgensen, H. A., & Løberg, E. (2014). Cognitive changes in patients with acute phase psychosis—Effects of illicit drug use. Psychiatry Research, 220(3), 818–824. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2014.08.062
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hellvin, T., Sundet, K., Simonsen, C., Aminoff, S. R., Lagerberg, T. V., Andreassen, O. A., & Melle, I. (2012). Neurocognitive functioning in patients recently diagnosed with bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disorders, 14(3), 227–238. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-5618.2012.01004.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffmann, H., Kupper, Z., Zbinden, M., & Hirsbrunner, H. (2003). Predicting vocational functioning and outcome in schizophrenia outpatients attending a vocational rehabilitation program. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 38(2), 76–82. doi: 10.1007/s00127-003-0603-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holdnack, J. A., Tulsky, D. S., Brooks, B. L., Slotkin, J., Gershon, R., Heinemann, A. W., & Iverson, G. L. (2017). Interpreting patterns of low scores on the NIH toolbox cognition battery. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 32(5), 574–584. doi: 10.1093/arclin/acx032
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iverson, G. L., Brooks, B. L., & Haley, G. M. (2009). Interpretation of the RBANS in inpatient psychiatry: Clinical normative data and prevalence of low scores for patients with schizophrenia. Applied Neuropsychology, 16(1), 31–41. doi: 10.1080/09084280802644128
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iverson, G. L., Brooks, B. L., Langenecker, S. A., & Young, A. H. (2011). Identifying a cognitive impairment subgroup in adults with mood disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders, 132(3), 360–367. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2011.03.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iverson, G. L., Brooks, B. L., & Young, A. H. (2009a). Rapid computerized assessment of neurocognitive deficits in bipolar disorder. Applied Neuropsychology, 16(3), 207–213. doi: 10.1080/09084280903098778
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iverson, G. L., Brooks, B. L., & Young, A. H. (2009b). Identifying neurocognitive impairment in depression using computerized testing. Applied Neuropsychology, 16(4), 254–261. doi: 10.1080/09084280903297594
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahn, R. S., & Keefe, R. S. (2013). schizophrenia is a cognitive illness. JAMA Psychiatry, 70(10), 1107. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.155
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keefe, R. S. (2014). The longitudinal course of cognitive impairment in schizophrenia. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 75(Suppl 2), 8–13. doi: 10.4088/JCP.13065su1.02
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler, R. C., Birnbaum, H., Demler, O., Falloon, I. R. H., Gagnon, E., Guyer, M., … Wu, E. Q. (2005). The prevalence and correlates of nonaffective psychosis in the national comorbidity survey replication (NCS–R). Biological Psychiatry, 58(8), 668–676. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.04.034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kløve, H. (1974). Validation studies in adult clinical neuropsychology. In R. Reitan & L. Davison (Eds.) Clinical neuropsychology: Current status and applications. New York: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Landrø, N. I., Fors, E. A., Våpenstad, L. L., Holthe, Ø., Stiles, T. C., & Borchgrevink, P. C. (2013). The extent of neurocognitive dysfunction in a multidisciplinary pain centre population. Is there a relation between reported and tested neuropsychological functioning?. Pain, 154(7), 972–977. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2013.01.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leung, A., & Chue, P. (2000). Sex differences in schizophrenia, a review of the literature. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. Supplementum, 401(401), 3–38. doi: 10.1111/j.0065-1591.2000.0ap25.x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lorentzen, E., Tubylewicz-Olsnes, B., Zhu, J., & Troland, K. (2014). Comparison between Norwegian and American norms of WAIS–IV. Tidsskrift for Norsk Psykologforening, 51(12), 1062–1066.
   Google Scholar
• Loughland, C. M., Lewin, T. J., Carr, V. J., Sheedy, J., & Harris, A. W. (2007). RBANS neuropsychological profiles within schizophrenia samples recruited from non-clinical settings. Schizophrenia Research, 89(1-3), 232–242. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2006.08.022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Løvstad, M., Sigurdardottir, S., Andersson, S., Grane, V., Moberget, T., Stubberud, J., & Solbakk, A. (2016). Behavior rating inventory of executive function adult version in patients with neurological and neuropsychiatric conditions: symptom levels and relationship to emotional distress. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 22(06), 682–694. doi: 10.1017/S135561771600031X
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Manly, J. J. (2005). Advantages and disadvantages of separate norms for African Americans. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 19(2), 270–275. doi: 10.1080/13854040590945346
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohn, C., Sundet, K., & Rund, B. R. (2012). The Norwegian standardization of the MATRICS (measurement and treatment research to improve cognition in schizophrenia) consensus cognitive battery. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 34(6), 667–677. doi: 10.1080/13803395.2012.667792
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naveh-Benjamin, M., & Ayres, T. J. (1986). Digit span, reading rate, and linguistic relativity. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 38(4), 739–751. doi: 10.1080/14640748608401623
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nesvåg, R., Knudsen, G. P., Bakken, I. J., Høye, A., Ystrom, E., Surén, P., … Reichborn-Kjennerud, T. (2015). Substance use disorders in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and depressive illness: A registry-based study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 50(8), 1267–1276. doi: 10.1007/s00127-015-1025-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norman, M. A., Moore, D. J., Taylor, M., Franklin, D., Cysique, L., Ake, C., … Group, T. H. (2011). Demographically corrected norms for African Americans and Caucasians on the Hopkins verbal learning test–revised, brief visuospatial memory test–revised, stroop color and word test, and Wisconsin card sorting test 64–card version. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33(7), 793–804. doi: 10.1080/13803395.2011.559157
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• OECD (2013). OECD skills outlook 2013: First results from the survey of adult skills. Paris: OECD Publishing. doi: 10.1787/9789264204256-en
   Google Scholar
• OECD (2017). Health at a glance 2017: OECD indicators. Paris: OECD Publishing. doi: 10.1787/health_glance-2017-en
   Google Scholar
• Patton, D. E., Duff, K., Schoenberg, M. R., Mold, J., Scott, J. G., & Adams, R. L. (2003). Performance of cognitively normal African Americans on the RBANS in community dwelling older adults. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 17(4), 515–530. doi: 10.1076/clin.17.4.515.27948
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Potvin, S., Stavro, K., & Pelletier, J. (2012). Paradoxical cognitive capacities in dual diagnosis schizophrenia: The quest for explanatory factors. Journal of Dual Diagnosis, 8(1), 35–47. doi: 10.1080/15504263.2012.648549
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajji, T. K., Miranda, D., & Mulsant, B. H. (2014). Cognition, function, and disability in patients with schizophrenia: A review of longitudinal studies. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 59(1), 13–17. doi: 10.1177/070674371405900104
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Randolph, C. (1998). Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status RBANS; manual. San Antonio, Texas: Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Randolph, C. (2006). RBANS supplement 1. Retrieved from http://images.pearsonclinical.com/images/pdf/technical_reports/rbans.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Randolph, C. (2012). Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status Update (RBANS Update); manual. Bloomington, Minnesota: Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Randolph, C. (2013). Repeatable battery for the assessment of neuropsychological status RBANS; Norwegian manual. Enschede, NL: Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Rosenheck, R., Leslie, D., Keefe, R., Mcevoy, J., Swartz, M., Perkins, D., … Lieberman, J. (2006). Barriers to employment for people with schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(3), 411–417. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.163.3.411
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosselli, M., & Ardila, A. (2003). The impact of culture and education on non–verbal neuropsychological measurements: A critical review. Brain and Cognition, 52(3), 326–333. doi: 10.1016/s0278-2626(03)00170-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simonsen, C., Sundet, K., Vaskinn, A., Birkenaes, A. B., Engh, J. A., Faerden, A., … Andreassen, O. A. (2011). Neurocognitive dysfunction in bipolar and schizophrenia spectrum disorders depends on history of psychosis rather than diagnostic group. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 37(1), 73–83. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbp034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siqveland, J., Dalsbø, T. K., Harboe, I., & Leiknes, K. A. (2014). Psychometric evaluation of the Norwegian version of the Wechsler abbreviated scale of intelligence (WASI). Research overview. ISBN (digital): 978–82–8121–902–1, ISSN (digital): 1890–1298. Available at www.fhi.no/en
   Google Scholar
• Spaulding, W. D., Fleming, S. K., Reed, D., Sullivan, M., Storzbach, D., & Lam, M. (1999). cognitive functioning in schizophrenia: implications for psychiatric rehabilitation. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 25(2), 275–289. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a033378
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sponheim, S. R., Jung, R. E., Seidman, L. J., Mesholam-Gately, R. I., Manoach, D. S., O’Leary, D. S., … Schulz, S. C. (2010). Cognitive deficits in recent-onset and chronic schizophrenia. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 44(7), 421–428. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2009.09.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Statistics Denmark (2017). Statistical Yearbook 2017. Retrieved from https://www.dst.dk/yearbook
   Google Scholar
• Statistics Denmark (2019). Immigrants and Their Descendants. Retrieved from https://www.dst.dk/en/Statistik/emner/befolkning-og-valg/indvandrere-og-efterkommere/indvandrere-og-efterkommere
   Google Scholar
• Statistics Norway. (2018a). Facts about education in Norway 2018—Key figures 2016. Retrieved from https://www.ssb.no/en/utdanning/artikler-og-publikasjoner/facts-about-education-in-norway-2018
   Google Scholar
• Statistics Norway. (2018b). Key figures for the population 2018. Retrieved from https://www.ssb.no/en/befolkning/nokkeltall/population
   Google Scholar
• Statistics Norway. (2018c). Educational attainment of the population. Retrieved from https://www.ssb.no/en/utdanning/statistikker/utniv
   Google Scholar
• Statistics Sweden. (2018). Educational attainment of the population in 2017. Retrieved from https://www.scb.se/en/finding-statistics/statistics-by-subject-area/education-and-research/education-of-the-population/educational-attainment-of-the-population/pong/statistical-news/educational-attainment-of-the-population-in-2017/
   Google Scholar
• Statistics Sweden. (2019). Population statistics. Retrieved from https://www.scb.se/hitta-statistik/statistik-efter-amne/befolkning/befolkningens-sammansattning/befolkningsstatistik/
   Google Scholar
• Sulkunen, S., & Malin, A. (2017). Literacy, age and recentness of education among nordic adults. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 1–20. doi: 10.1080/00313831.2017.1324898
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szymanski, S., Lieberman, J. A., & Alvir, J. M. (1995). Gender differences in onset of illness. Treatment Response, Course, and Biologic Indexes in First-Episode Schizophrenic Patients. (1995). American Journal of Psychiatry, 152(5), 698–703. doi: 10.1176/ajp.152.5.698
   Google Scholar
• Telhaug, A. O., Mediås, O. A., & Aasen, P. (2006). The Nordic model in education: Education as part of the political system in the last 50 years. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 50(3), 245–283. doi: 10.1080/00313830600743274
   Google Scholar
• Vogel, A., Stokholm, J., & Jørgensen, K. (2012). Performances on rey auditory verbal learning test and rey complex figure test in a healthy, elderly Danish sample—Reference data and validity issues. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 53(1), 26–31. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9450.2011.00909.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wechsler, D. (2012). Wechsler adult intelligence scale–Fourth Edition (Norwegian translation). Enschede, NL: Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Westlye, E. T., Hodneland, E., Haász, J., Espeseth, T., Lundervold, A., & Lundervold, A. J. (2012). Episodic memory of APOE ε4 carriers is correlated with fractional anisotropy, but not cortical thickness, in the medial temporal lobe. NeuroImage, 63(1), 507–516. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.06.072
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilk, C., Gold, J. M., Humber, K., Dickerson, F., Fenton, W. S., & Buchanan, R. W. (2004). Brief cognitive assessment in schizophrenia: Normative data for the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status. Schizophrenia Research, 70(2-3), 175–186. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2003.10.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkinson, R. G., & Pickett, K. E. (2009). Income inequality and social dysfunction. Annual Review of Sociology, 35(1), 493–511. doi: 10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-115926
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (1998). International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems (10th ed.). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang, T., Li, H., Stone, W. S., Woodberry, K. A., Seidman, L. J., Tang, Y., … Wang, J. (2015). Neuropsychological impairment in prodromal, first-episode, and chronic psychosis: Assessing RBANS performance. Plos One, 10(5). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0125784
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar