Physical activity and health: Musculoskeletal issues

References

• Harridge S, Suominen H. Physical activity in the elderly. Textbook of sports medicine. Basic science and clinical aspects of sports injury and physical activity, M Kjaer, M Krogsgaard, P Magnusson, H Roos, T Takala, S L-Y Woo. Blackwell Science, Oxford 2003; 337–54
   Google Scholar
• Dempster DW. Anatomy and functions of the adult skeleton. Primer of the metabolic bone diseases and disorders of mineral metabolism6th ed, MJ Favus. American Society for Bone and Mineral Research, Washington, DC 2006; 7–11
   Google Scholar
• Lexell J, Sjostrom M, Nordlund AS, Taylor CC. Differences in fiber number and fiber type proportion within fascicles. A quantitative morphological study of whole vastus lateralis muscle from childhood to old age. Anat Rec. 1992; 234: 183–9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Neu CM, Rauch F, Rittweger J, Manz F, Schoenau E. Influence of puberty on muscle development at the forearm. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2002; 283: E103–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skelton DA, Greig CA, Davies JM, Young A. Strength, power and related functional ability of healthy people aged 65–89 years. Age Ageing. 1994; 23: 371–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rantanen T, Masaki K, Foley D, Izmirlian G, White L, Guralnik JM. Grip strength changes over 27 yr in Japanese-American men. J Appl Physiol. 1998; 85: 2047–53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vandervoort AA. Aging of the human neuromuscular system. Muscle Nerve. 2002; 25: 17–25
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips SK, Wiseman RW, Woledge RC, Kushmerick MJ. Neither changes in phosphorus metabolite levels nor myosin isoforms can explain the weakness in aged mouse muscle. J Physiol. 1993; 463: 157–67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sipilä S, Poutamo J. Muscle performance, sex hormones and training in peri-menopausal and post-menopausal women. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2003; 13: 19–25
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skelton DA, Phillips SK, Bruce SA, Naylor CH, Woledge RC. Hormone replacement therapy increases isometric muscle strength of adductor pollicis in post-menopausal women. Clin Sci. 1999; 96: 357–64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sipilä S, Taaffe DR, Cheng S, Toivanen JT, Suominen H. Effects of hormone replacement therapy and high-impact physical exercise on skeletal muscle in postmenopausal women: A randomized, placebo-controlled study. Clin Sci. 2001; 101: 147–57
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taaffe DR, Sipila S, Cheng S, Puolakka J, Toivanen J, Suominen H. The effect of hormone replacement therapy and/or exercise on skeletal muscle attenuation in postmenopausal women: A yearlong intervention. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging. 2005; 25: 297–304
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lexell J, Taylor CC, Sjöström M. What is the cause of the ageing atrophy? Total number, size and proportion of different fiber types studied in whole vastus lateralis muscle from 15- to 83-year-old men. J Neurol Sci. 1988; 84: 275–94
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andersen JL, Terzis G, Kryger A. Increase in the degree of coexpression of myosin heavy chain isoforms in skeletal muscle fibers of the very old. Muscle Nerve. 1999; 22: 449–54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larsson L, Li X, Frontera WR. Effects of aging on shortening velocity and myosin isoform composition in single human skeletal muscle cells. Am J Physiol. 1997; 272: C638–49
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krivickas LS, Suh D, Wilkins J, Hughes VA, Roubenoff R, Frontera WR. Age- and gender-related differences in maximum shortening velocity of skeletal muscle fibers. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2001; 80: 447–55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D'Antona G, Pellegrino MA, Adami R, Rossi R, Carlizzi CN, Canepari M, et al. The effect of ageing and immobilization on structure and function of human skeletal muscle fibres. J Physiol. 2003; 522: 499–511
   Google Scholar
• Young A. Strength and power. Oxford textbook of geriatric medicine, JG Evans, TF Williams. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1992; 597–601
   Google Scholar
• Era P, Rantanen T. Changes in physical capacity and sensory/psychomotor functions from 75 to 80 years of age and from 80 to 85 years of age – A longitudinal study. Scand J Soc Med Suppl. 1997; 53: 25–43
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gill TM, Allore HG, Holford TR, Guo Z. Hospitalization, restricted activity, and the development of disability among older persons. JAMA. 2004; 292: 2115–24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karinkanta S, Heinonen A, Sievanen H, Uusi-Rasi K, Pasanen M, Ojala K, et al. A multi-component exercise regimen to prevent functional decline and bone fragility in home-dwelling elderly women: Randomized, controlled trial. Osteoporos Int. 2007; 18: 453–62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter ND, Kannus P, Khan KM. Exercise in the prevention of falls in older people: A systematic literature review examining the rationale and the evidence. Sports Med. 2001; 31: 427–38
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doherty TJ. Invited review: Aging and sarcopenia. J Appl Physiol. 2003; 95: 1717–27
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumgartner RN, Koehler KM, Gallagher D, Romero L, Heymsfield SB, Ross RR, et al. Epidemiology of sarcopenia among the eldery in New Mexico. Am J Epidemiol. 1998; 147: 755–63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melton LJ 3rd, Khosla S, Crowson CS, O'Connor MK, O'Fallon WM, Riggs BL. Epidemiology of sarcopenia. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2000; 48: 625–30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lauretani F, Russo CR, Bandinelli S, Bartali B, Cavazzini C, Di Iorio A, et al. Age-associated changes in skeletal muscles and their effect on mobility: An operational diagnosis of sarcopenia. J Appl Physiol. 2003; 95: 1851–60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahn K, McKay H, Kannus P, Bailey D, Wark J, Bennel K. Physical activity and bone health. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2001.
   Google Scholar
• Suominen H. Muscle training for bone strength. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2006; 18: 85–93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ponder SW, McCormick DP, Fawcett HD, Palmer JL, McKernan MG, Brouhard BH. Spinal bone mineral density in children aged 5.00 through 11.99 years. Am J Dis Child. 1990; 144: 1346–8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lu PW, Briody JN, Ogle GD, Morley K, Humphries IR, Allen J, et al. Bone mineral density of total body, spine, and femoral neck in children and young adults: A cross-sectional and longitudinal study. J Bone Miner Res. 1994; 9: 1451–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey DA, McKay HA, Mirwald RL, Crocker PR, Faulkner RA. A six-year longitudinal study of the relationship of physical activity to bone mineral accrual in growing children: The university of Saskatchewan bone mineral accrual study. J Bone Miner Res. 1999; 14: 1672–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molgaard C, Thomsen BL, Michaelsen KF. Whole body bone mineral accretion in healthy children and adolescents. Arch Dis Child. 1999; 81: 10–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey DA. The Saskatchewan Pediatric Bone Mineral Accrual Study: Bone mineral acquisition during the growing years. Int J Sports Med 1997; 18 Suppl 3: S191–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Q, Alen M, Nicholson P, Lyytikainen A, Suuriniemi M, Helkala E, Suominen H, Cheng S. Growth patterns at distal radius and tibial shaft in pubertal girls: A 2-year longitudinal study. J Bone Miner Res. 2005; 20: 954–61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seeman E. Clinical review 137: Sexual dimorphism in skeletal size, density, and strength. J Clin Endocr Metab. 2001; 86: 4576–84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu PW, Cowell CT, LLoyd-Jones SA, Briody JN, Howman-Giles R. Volumetric bone mineral density in normal subjects, aged 5–27 years. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996; 81: 1586–90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoenau E, Neu CM, Rauch F, Manz F. Gender-specific pubertal changes in volumetric cortical bone mineral density at the proximal radius. Bone. 2002; 31: 110–3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neu CM, Rauch F, Manz F, Schoenau E. Modeling of cross-sectional bone size, mass and geometry at the proximal radius: A study of normal bone development using peripheral quantitative computed tomography. Osteoporos Int. 2001; 12: 38–47
   Google Scholar
• Wang Q, Nicholson PH, Suuriniemi M, Lyytikainen A, Helkala E, Alen M, et al. Relationship of sex hormones to bone geometric properties and mineral density in early pubertal girls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004; 89: 1698–703
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Q, Alen M, Nicholson PH, Halleen JM, Alatalo SL, Ohlsson C, et al. Differential effects of sex hormones on peri- and endocortical bone surfaces in pubertal girls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006; 91: 277–82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoenau E, Neu CM, Mokov E, Wassmer G, Manz F. Influence of puberty on muscle area and cortical bone area of the forearm in boys and girls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000; 85: 1095–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferretti JL, Cointry GR, Capozza RF, Frost HM. Bone mass, bone strength, muscle–bone interactions, osteopenias and osteoporoses. Mech Ageing Dev. 2003; 124: 26
   Google Scholar
• Forwood MR, Bailey DA, Beck TJ, Mirwald RL, Baxter-Jones AD, Uusi-Rasi K. Sexual dimorphism of the femoral neck during the adolescent growth spurt: A structural analysis. Bone. 2004; 35: 973–81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey DA, Wedge JH, McCulloch RG, Martin AD, Bernhardson SC. Epidemiology of fractures of the distal end of the radius in children as associated with growth. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1989; 71: 1225–31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blimkie CJ, Lefevre J, Beunen GP, Renson R, Dequeker J, Van Damme P. Fractures, physical activity, and growth velocity in adolescent Belgian boys. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1993; 25: 801–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ensrud KE, Palermo L, Black DM, Cauley J, Jergas M, Orwoll ES, et al. Hip and calcaneal bone loss increase with advancing age: Longitudinal results from the study of osteoporotic fractures. J Bone Miner Res. 1995; 10: 1778–87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones G, Nguyen T, Sambrook P, Kelly PJ, Eisman JA. Progressive loss of bone in the femoral neck in elderly people: Longitudinal findings from the Dubbo osteoporosis epidemiology study. BMJ. 1994; 309: 691–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahlborg HG, Johnell O, Turner CH, Rannevik G, Karlsson MK. Bone loss and bone size after menopause. N Engl J Med. 2003; 349: 327–34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riggs BL, Melton III LJ, Robb RA, Camp JJ, Atkinson EJ, Peterson JM, et al. Population-based study of age and sex differences in bone volumetric density, size, geometry, and structure at different skeletal sites. J Bone Miner Res. 2004; 19: 1945–54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng S, Suominen H, Sakari-Rantala R, Laukkanen P, Avikainen V, Heikkinen E. Calcaneal bone mineral density predicts fracture occurrence – A 5-year follow-up study in elderly people. J Bone Miner Res. 1997; 12: 1075–82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomsen JS, Ebbesen EN, Mosekilde L. Zone-dependent changes in human vertebral trabecular bone: Clinical implications. Bone. 2002; 30: 664–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seeman E, Delmas PD. Bone quality – The material and structural basis of bone strength and fragility. N Engl J Med. 2006; 354: 2250–61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duan Y, Beck TJ, Wang X-F, Seeman E. Structural and biomechanical basis of sexual dimorphism in femoral neck fragility has its origins in growth and aging. J Bone Miner Res. 2003; 18: 1766–74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Filardi S, Zebaze RM, Duan Y, Edmonds J, Beck T, Seeman E. Femoral neck fragility in women has its structural and biomechanical basis established by periosteal modeling during growth and endocortical remodeling during aging. Osteoporos Int. 2004; 15: 103–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayhew PM, Thomas CD, Clement JG, Loveridge N, Beck TJ, Bonfield W, et al. Relation between age, femoral neck cortical stability, and hip fracture risk. Lancet. 2005; 366: 129–35
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lanyon L, Armstrong V, Ong D, Zaman G, Price J. Is estrogen receptor alpha key to controlling bones’ resistance to fracture?. J Endocrinol. 2004; 182: 183–91
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Järvinen TL, Kannus P, Sievanen H. Estrogen and bone – A reproductive and locomotive perspective. J Bone Miner Res. 2003; 18: 1921–31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riggs BL, Melton III LJ. The prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. New Engl J Med. 1992; 327: 620–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper C, Melton III LJ. Epidemiology of osteoporosis. Trends Edocrinol Metab. 1992; 3: 224–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kannus P, Niemi S, Parkkari J, Palvanen M, Vuori I, Jarvinen M. Hip fractures in Finland between 1970 and 1997 and predictions for the future. Lancet. 1999; 353: 802–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kannus P, Niemi S, Parkkari J, Palvanen M, Vuori I, Jarvinen M. Nationwide decline in incidence of hip fracture. J Bone Miner Res. 2006; 21: 1836–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart CE, Rittweger J. Adaptive processes in skeletal muscle: Molecular regulators and genetic influences. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact. 2006; 6: 73–86
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Narici MV, Roi GS, Landoni L, Minetti AE, Cerretelli P. Changes in force, cross-sectional area and neural activation during strength training and detraining of the human quadriceps. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1989; 59: 310–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Narici MV, Reeves ND, Morse CI, Maganaris CN. Muscular adaptations to resistance exercise in the elderly. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact. 2004; 4: 161–4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aagaard P. Making muscles “stronger”: Exercise, nutrition, drugs. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact. 2004; 4: 165–74
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gabriel DA, Kamen G, Frost G. Neural adaptations to resistive exercise: Mechanisms and recommendations for training practices. Sports Med. 2006; 36: 133–49
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esmarck B, Andersen JL, Olsen S, Richter EA, Mizuno M, Kjaer M. Timing of postexercise protein intake is important for muscle hypertrophy with resistance training in elderly humans. J Physiol. 2001; 535: 301–11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crewther B, Cronin J, Keogh J. Possible stimuli for strength and power adaptation: Acute metabolic responses. Sports Med. 2006; 36: 65–78
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crewther B, Keogh J, Cronin J, Cook C. Possible stimuli for strength and power adaptation: Acute hormonal responses. Sports Med. 2006; 36: 215–38
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huijing PA, Jaspers RT. Adaptation of muscle size and myofascial force transmission: A review and some new experimental results. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2005; 15: 349–80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frost HM. Bone “mass” and the “mechanostat”: A proposal. Anat Rec. 1987; 219: 1–9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lanyon LE. Using functional loading to influence bone mass and architecture: Objectives, mechanisms, and relationship with estrogen of the mechanically adaptive process in bone. Bone 1996; 18: 37S–43S
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner RT. Mechanical signalling in the development of postmenopausal osteoporosis. Lupus. 1999; 8: 388–92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frost HM. On the estrogen–bone relationship and postmenopausal bone loss: A new model. J Bone Miner Res. 1999; 14: 1473–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sievänen H. Hormonal influences on the muscle–bone feedback system: A perspective. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact. 2005; 5: 255–61
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Taaffe DR, Cooper CS, Holloway L, Duret C, Marcus R. Lack of association of anabolic hormone status and muscle strength with regional and whole body bone mineral density in healthy men aged 60–79 years. Aging Clin Exp Res. 1999; 11: 4–11
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Q, Alen M, Nicholson P, Suominen H, Koistinen A, Kroger H, Cheng S. Weight-bearing, muscle loading and bone mineral accrual in pubertal girls – A 2-year longitudinal study. Bone. 2006 Dec 21; [Epub ahead of print].
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burr DB. Muscle strength, bone mass, and age-related bone loss. J Bone Miner Res. 1997; 12: 1547–51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frost HM. On our age-related bone loss: Insights from a new paradigm. J Bone Miner Res. 1997; 12: 1539–46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu TW, Taylor SJ, O'Connor JJ, Walker PS. Influence of muscle activity on the forces in the femur: An in vivo study. J Biomech. 1997; 30: 1101–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munih M, Kralj A, Bajd T. Bending moments in lower extremity bones for two standing postures. J Biomed Eng. 1992; 14: 293–302
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Duncan R, Turner CH. Mechanotransduction and the functional response of bone to mechanical strain. Calcif Tissue Int. 1995; 57: 344–58
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsieh YF, Turner CH. Effects of loading frequency on mechanically induced bone formation. J Bone Miner Res. 2001; 16: 918–24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noble BS, Peet N, Stevens HY, Brabbs A, Mosley JR, Reilly GC, et al. Mechanical loading: Biphasic osteocyte survival and targeting of osteoclasts for bone destruction in rat cortical bone. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2003; 284: C934–43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mann V, Huber C, Kogianni G, Jones D, Noble B. The influence of mechanical stimulation on osteocyte apoptosis and bone viability in human trabecular bone. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact. 2006; 6: 408–17
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rubin C, Rubin J. Biomechanics and mechanobiology of Bone. Primer of the metabolic bone diseases and disorders of mineral metabolism6th ed, MJ Favus. American Society for Bone and Mineral Research, Washington, DC 2006; 36–42
   Google Scholar
• Rubin J, Rubin C, Jacobs CR. Molecular pathways mediating mechanical signaling in bone. Gene. 2006; 367: 1–16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner CH. Three rules for bone adaptation to mechanical stimuli. Bone. 1998; 23: 399–407
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burr DB, Robling AG, Turner CH. Effects of biomechanical stress on bones in animals. Bone. 2002; 30: 781–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robling AG, Hinant FM, Burr DB, Turner CH. Improved bone structure and strength after long-term mechanical loading is greatest if loading is separated into short bouts. J Bone Miner Res. 2002; 17: 1545–54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner CH, Robling AG. Designing exercise regiments to increase bone strength. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2003; 31: 45–50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klitgaard H, Mantoni M, Schiaffino S, Ausoni S, Gorza L, Laurent-Winter C, et al. Function, morphology and protein expression of ageing skeletal muscle: A cross-sectional study of elderly men with different training backgrounds. Acta Physiol Scand. 1990; 140: 41–54
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sipila S, Viitasalo J, Era P, Suominen H. Muscle strength in male athletes aged 70–81 years and a population sample. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1991; 63: 399–403
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trappe S. Master athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2001; 11 Suppl: S196–207
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawkins SA, Wiswell RA, Marcell TJ. Exercise and the master athlete – A model of successful aging?. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2003; 58: 1009–11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korhonen MT, Mero A, Suominen H. Age-related differences in 100-m sprint performance in male and female master runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003; 35: 1419–28
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rittweger J, Kwiet A, Felsenberg D. Physical performance in aging elite athletes – Challenging the limits of physiology. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact. 2004; 4: 159–60
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Korhonen MT, Suominen H, Mero A. Age and sex differences in blood lactate response to sprint running in elite master athletes. Can J Appl Physiol. 2005; 30: 647–65
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Korhonen MT, Cristea A, Alen M, Hakkinen K, Sipila S, Mero A, et al. Aging, muscle fiber type, and contractile function in sprint-trained athletes. J Appl Physiol. 2006; 101: 906–17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ojanen T, Rauhala T, Hakkinen K. Strength and power profiles of the lower and upper extremities in master throwers at different ages. J Strength Cond Res. 2007; 21: 216–22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suominen H. Bone mineral density and long term exercise: An overview of cross-sectional athlete studies. Sports Med. 1993; 16: 316–30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heinonen A, Oja P, Kannus P, Sievanen H, Haapasalo H, Manttari A, et al. Bone mineral density in female athletes representing sports with different loading characteristics of the skeleton. Bone. 1995; 17: 197–203
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taaffe DR, Suominen H, Ollikainen S, Cheng S. Calcaneal bone mineral and ultrasound attenuation in male athletes exposed to weight-bearing and non-weight-bearing activity. A cross-sectional report. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2001; 41: 243–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heinonen A, Sievanen H, Kyrolainen H, Perttunen J, Kannus P. Mineral mass, size, and estimated mechanical strength of triple jumpers’ lower limb. Bone. 2001; 29: 279–85
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heinonen A, Sievänen H, Kannus P, Oja P, Vuori I. Site-specific skeletal response to long-term weight training seems to be attributable to principal loading modality: A pQCT study of female weightlifters. Calcif Tissue Int. 2002; 70: 469–74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nikander R, Sievänen H, Heinonen A, Kannus P. Femoral neck structure in adult female athletes subjected to different loading modalities. J Bone Miner Res. 2005; 20: 520–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suominen H, Rahkila P. Bone mineral density of the calcaneus in 70- to 81-yr-old male athletes and a population sample. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1991; 23: 1227–33
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Welch JM, Rosen CJ. Older women track and field athletes have enhanced calcaneal stiffness. Osteoporos Int. 2005; 16: 871–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nichols JF, Palmer JE, Levy SS. Low bone mineral density in highly trained male master cyclists. Osteoporos Int. 2003; 14: 644–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehtonen-Veromaa M, Mottonen T, Svedstrom E, Hakola P, Heinonen OJ, Viikari J. Physical activity and bone mineral acquisition in peripubertal girls. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2000; 10: 236–43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang QJ, Suominen H, Nicholson PH, Zou LC, Alen M, Koistinen A, Cheng S. Influence of physical activity and maturation status on bone mass and geometry in early pubertal girls. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2005; 15: 100–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kannus P, Haapasalo H, Sankelo M, Sievänen H, Pasanen M, Heinonen A, et al. Effect of starting age of physical activity on bone mass in the dominant arm of tennis and squash players. Ann Intern Med. 1995; 123: 27–31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haapasalo H, Kannus P, Sievänen H, Pasanen M, Uusi-Rasi K, Heinonen A, et al. Effect of long-term unilateral activity on bone mineral density of female junior tennis players. J Bone Miner Res. 1998; 13: 310–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suuriniemi M, Mahonen A, Kovanen V, Alen M, Lyytikainen A, Wang Q, et al. Association between exercise and pubertal BMD is modulated by estrogen receptor alpha genotype. J Bone Miner Res. 2004; 19: 1758–65
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gregg EW, Pereira MA, Caspersen CJ. Physical activity, falls, and fractures among older adults: A review of the epidemiologic evidence. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2000; 48: 883–93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kujala UM, Kaprio J, Kannus P, Sarna S, Koskenvuo M. Physical activity and osteoporotic hip fracture risk in men. Arch Intern Med. 2000; 160: 705–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rantanen T, Sakari-Rantala R, Heikkinen E. Muscle strength before and mortality after a bone fracture in older people. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2002; 12: 296–300
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Falk B, Tenenbaum G. The effectiveness of resistance training in children. A meta-analysis. Sports Med. 1996; 22: 176–86
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Payne VG, Morrow JR, Jr, Johnson L, Dalton SN. Resistance training in children and youth: A meta-analysis. Res Q Exerc Sport. 1997; 68: 80–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhea MR, Alvar BA, Burkett LN, Ball SD. A meta-analysis to determine the dose response for strength development. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003; 35: 456–64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kraemer WJ, Adams K, Cafarelli E, Dudley GA, Dooly C, Feigenbaum MS, et al. American College of Sports Medicine. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Progression models in resistance training for healthy adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2002; 34: 364–80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiatarone MA, O'Neill EF, Ryan ND, Clements KM, Solares GR, Nelson ME, et al. Exercise training and nutritional supplementation for physical frailty in very elderly people. N Engl J Med. 1994; 330: 1769–75
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sipila S, Multanen J, Kallinen M, Era P, Suominen H. Effects of strength and endurance training on isometric muscle strength and walking speed in elderly women. Acta Physiol Scand. 1996; 156: 457–64
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Patten C, Kamen G. Adaptations in motor unit discharge activity with force control training in young and older human adults. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2000; 83: 128–43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hakkinen K, Newton RU, Gordon SE, McCormick M, Volek JS, Nindl BC, et al. Changes in muscle morphology, electromyographic activity, and force production characteristics during progressive strength training in young and older men. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 1998; 53: B415–23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hakkinen K, Kraemer WJ, Newton RU, Alen M. Changes in electromyographic activity, muscle fibre and force production characteristics during heavy resistance/power strength training in middle-aged and older men and women. Acta Physiol Scand. 2001; 171: 51–62
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Frontera WR, Meredith CN, O'Reilly KP, Knuttgen HG, Evans WJ. Strength conditioning in older men: Skeletal muscle hypertrophy and improved function. J Appl Physiol. 1988; 64: 1038–44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sipilä S, Suominen H. Effects of strength and endurance training on thigh and leg muscle mass and composition in elderly women. J Appl Physiol. 1995; 78: 334–40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harridge SD, Kryger A, Stensgaard A. Knee extensor strength, activation, and size in very elderly people following strength training. Muscle Nerve. 1999; 22: 831–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heinonen A, Sievänen H, Kannus P, Oja P, Pasanen M, Vuori I. High-impact exercise and bones of growing girls: A 9-month controlled trial. Osteoporos Int. 2000; 11: 1010–17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacKelvie KJ, McKay HA, Khan KM, Crocker PR. A school-based exercise intervention augments bone mineral accrual in early pubertal girls. J Pediatr. 2001; 139: 501–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuchs RK, Bauer JJ, Snow CM. Jumping improves hip and lumbar spine bone mass in prepubescent children: A randomized controlled trial. J Bone Miner Res. 2001; 16: 148–56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petit MA, McKay HA, MacKelvie KJ, Heinonen A, Khan KM, Beck TJ. A randomized school-based jumping intervention confers site and maturity-specific benefits on bone structural properties in girls: A hip structural analysis study. J Bone Miner Res. 2002; 17: 363–72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris FL, Naughton GA, Gibbs JL, Carlson JS, Wark JD. Prospective 10-month exercise intervention in pre-menarcheal girls: Positive effects on bone and lean mass. J Bone Miner Res. 1997; 12: 1453–62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradney M, Pearce G, Naughton G, Sullivan C, Bass S, Beck T, et al. Moderate exercise during growth in prepubertal boys. Changes in bone mass, size, volumetric density, and bone strength: A controlled prospective study. J Bone Miner Res. 1998; 13: 1814–21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKay HA, Petit MA, Schutz RW, Prior JC, Barr SI, Khan KM. Augmented trochanteric bone mineral density after modified physical education classes: A randomized school-based exercise intervention study in prepubescent and early pubescent children. J Pediatr. 2000; 136: 156–62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohrt WM, Bloomfield SA, Little KD, Nelson ME, Yingling VR. American College of Sports Medicine Position Stand: Physical activity and bone health. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004; 36: 1985–96
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolff I, van Croonenborg JJ, Kemper HC, Kostense PJ, Twisk JW. The effect of exercise training programs on bone mass: A meta-analysis of published controlled trials in pre- and postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int. 1999; 9: 1–12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelley GA, Kelley KS, Tran ZV. Exercise and bone mineral density in men: A meta-analysis. J Appl Physiol. 2000; 88: 1730–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallace BA, Cumming RG. Systematic review of randomized trials of the effect of exercise on bone mass in pre- and postmenopausal women. Calcif Tissue Int. 2000; 67: 10–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelley GA, Kelley KS, Tran ZV. Resistance training and bone mineral density in women. A meta-analysis of controlled trials. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2001; 80: 65–77
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vuori IM. Dose–response of physical activity and low back pain, osteoarthritis, and osteoporosis. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001; 33: S551–86
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonaiuti D, Shea B, Iovine R, Negrini S, Robinson V, Kemper HC, et al. Exercise for preventing and treating osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002: CD000333.
   Google Scholar
• Asikainen TM, Kukkonen-Harjula K, Miilunpalo S. Exercise for health for early postmenopausal women: A systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Sports Med. 2004; 34: 753–78
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martyn-St James M, Carroll S. High-intensity resistance training and postmenopausal bone loss: A meta-analysis. Osteoporos Int. 2006; 17: 1225–40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bassey EJ, Ramsdale SJ. Increase in femoral bone mineral density in young women following high impact exercise. Osteoporos Int. 1994; 4: 72–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heinonen A, Kannus P, Sievanen H, Oja P, Pasanen M, Rinne M, et al. Randomised controlled trial of effect of high-impact exercise on selected risk factors for osteoporotic fractures. Lancet. 1996; 348: 1343–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vainionpaa A, Korpelainen R, Leppaluoto J, Jamsa T. Effects of high-impact exercise on bone mineral density: A randomized controlled trial in premenopausal women. Osteoporos Int. 2005; 16: 191–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seeman E, Zebaze RM. On Jarvinen et al. (Bone. 2003;32:642–61). Bone. 2004;34:231–2; author reply 233–5.
   Google Scholar
• Huuskonen J, Vaisanen SB, Kroger H, Jurvelin JS, Alhava E, Rauramaa R. Regular physical exercise and bone mineral density: A four-year controlled randomized trial in middle-aged men. The DNASCO study. Osteoporos Int. 2001; 12: 349–55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korpelainen R, Keinanen-Kiukaanniemi S, Heikkinen J, Vaananen K, Korpelainen J. Effect of impact exercise on bone mineral density in elderly women with low BMD: A population-based randomized controlled 30-month intervention. Osteoporos Int. 2006; 17: 109–118
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Layne JE, Nelson ME. The effects of progressive resistance training on bone density: A review. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999; 31: 25–30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson ME, Fiatarone MA, Morganti CM, Trice I, Greenberg RA, Evans WJ. Effects of high-intensity strength training on multiple risk factors for osteoporotic fractures. A randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 1994; 272: 1909–14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerr D, Morton A, Dick I, Prince R. Exercise effects on bone mass in postmenopausal women are site-specific and load-dependent. J Bone Miner Res. 1996; 11: 218–25
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerr D, Ackland T, Maslen B, Morton A, Prince R. Resistance training over 2 years increases bone mass in calcium-replete postmenopausal women. J Bone Miner Res. 2001; 16: 175–81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vincent KR, Braith RW. Resistance exercise and bone turnover in elderly men and women. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2002; 34: 17–23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pruitt LA, Taaffe DR, Marcus R. Effects of a one-year high-intensity versus low-intensity resistance training program on bone mineral density in older women. J Bone Miner Res. 1995; 10: 1788–95
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bemben DA, Fetters NL, Bemben MG, Nabavi N, Koh ET. Musculoskeletal responses to high- and low-intensity resistance training in early postmenopausal women. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000; 32: 1949–57
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daly RM, Dunstan DW, Owen N, Jolley D, Shaw JE, Zimmet PZ. Does high-intensity resistance training maintain bone mass during moderate weight loss in older overweight adults with type 2 diabetes?. Osteoporos Int. 2006; 16: 1713–12
   Google Scholar
• Vestergaard P. Discrepancies in bone mineral density and fracture risk in patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes – A meta-analysis. Osteoporos Int. 2007; 18: 427–44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corwin RL, Hartman TJ, Maczuga SA, Graubard BI. Dietary saturated fat intake is inversely associated with bone density in humans: Analysis of NHANES III. J Nutr. 2006; 136: 159–65
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marx J. Coming to grips with bone loss. Science. 2004; 305: 1420–2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prince RL, Smith M, Dick IM, Price RI, Webb PG, Henderson NK, et al. Prevention of postmenopausal osteoporosis. A comparative study of exercise, calcium supplementation, and hormone-replacement therapy. N Engl J Med. 1991; 325: 1189–95
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohrt WM, Snead DB, Slatopolsky E, Birge SJ, Jr. Additive effects of weight-bearing exercise and estrogen on bone mineral density in older women. J Bone Miner Res. 1995; 10: 1303–11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohrt WM, Birge SJ, Jr. Differential effects of estrogen treatment on bone mineral density of the spine, hip, wrist and total body in late postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int. 1995; 5: 150–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heikkinen J, Kyllonen E, Kurttila-Matero E, Wilen-Rosenqvist G, Lankinen KS, Rita H, et al. HRT and exercise: Effects on bone density, muscle strength and lipid metabolism. A placebo controlled 2-year prospective trial on two estrogen-progestin regimens in healthy postmenopausal women. Maturitas. 1997; 26: 139–49
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohrt WM, Ehsani AA, Birge SJ, Jr. HRT preserves increases in bone mineral density and reductions in body fat after a supervised exercise program. J Appl Physiol. 1998; 84: 1506–12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng S, Sipilä S, Taaffe DR, Puolakka J, Suominen H. Change in bone mass distribution induced by hormone replacement therapy and high-impact physical exercise in post-menopausal women. Bone. 2002; 31: 126–35
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lemoine S, Granier P, Tiffoche C, Rannou-Bekono F, Thieulant ML, Delamarche P. Estrogen receptor alpha mRNA in human skeletal muscles. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003; 35: 439–43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gillespie LD, Gillespie WJ, Robertson MC, Lamb SE, Cumming RG, Rowe BH. Interventions for preventing falls in elderly people. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003; (4):CD000340.
   Google Scholar
• Englund U, Littbrand H, Sondell A, Pettersson U, Bucht G. A 1-year combined weight-bearing training program is beneficial for bone mineral density and neuromuscular function in older women. Osteoporos Int. 2005; 16: 1117–23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar