85
Views
3
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Experienced by Survivors of School Violence in South Africa: Sex and Age Differences

Pages 45-52 | Published online: 01 May 2014

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., revised). Washington, DC: Author.
  • APA. (2004). Managing traumatic stress: Tips for recovering from disasters and other traumatic events. Available at www.apahelpcenter.org. Accessed: May 2008.
  • Astor, R., Benbenishty, R., Vinokur, A., & Zeira, A. (2006). Arab and Jewish elementary school students’ perceptions of fear and school violence: Understanding the influence of school context. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 91–118.
  • Biersteker, L., & Erlank, D. (2000). Taking back the gangsters’ playgrounds. Children First, 20, 9–12.
  • Breslau, N., & Davis, G.C. (1992). Posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults: Risk factors for chronicity. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 671–675.
  • Breslau, N., Chilcoat, H.D., Kessler, R.C., Peterson, E.L., & Lucia, V.C. (1999). Vulnerability to assaultive violence: Further specification of the sex difference in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychological Medicine, 29, 813–821.
  • Brewin, C., Dalgleish, T., & Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103, 670–686.
  • Briere, J. (1997). Psychological assessment of adult posttraumatic states. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
  • Brown, B., & Louw, J. (2008). Forms of posttraumatic stress disorder experienced by survivors of school violence in rural and urban Eastern Cape schools in South Africa. Africa Education Review, (Under review).
  • Cahill, L. (1997). The neurobiology of emotionally influenced memory: Implications for understanding traumatic memory. In R. Yehuda & A. C. McFarlane (Eds.), Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences: Vol. 821. Psychobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder (pp. 238–246). New York: NY: Academy of Sciences.
  • ChildLine South Africa. (1999). Call report. August 1999.
  • Childline South Africa. (2000). Interview with Joan van Niekerk, Director: Childline. April 2000.
  • Christianson, S., & Marren, J. (2008). The impact of event scale—Revised (IES-R). Hartford Institute for Geriatric Nursing. Available at www.hartfordign.org. Retrieved August 2008.
  • Clohessy, S., & Ehlers, A. (1999). PTSD symptoms, response to intrusive memories and coping in ambulance service workers. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38, 251–265.
  • Cole, S. (2005). Helping traumatized children learn. A report and policy agenda. Massachusetts Advocates for Children. Boston: Library of Congress.
  • Conway, M. A., & Pleydell-Pearce, C. W. (2000). The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system. Psychological Review, 107, 261–288.
  • Cuffe, S., Addy, C., Garrison, C., Waller, J., Jackson, L., & McKeown, R. (1998). Prevalence of PTDS in a community sample of older adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37(2), 147–154.
  • De Wet, C. (2003).Eastern Cape educators’ perceptions of the causes and the scope of school violence. Acta Criminologica, 16(3), 89–106.
  • De Wet, C. (2005). The nature and extent of bullying in Free State secondary schools. South Africa Journal of Education, 25(2), 82–88.
  • De Wet, C. (2007). Educators’ perceptions and observations of learner-on-learner violence and violence-related behaviour. Africa Education Review, 4(2), 75–93.
  • Duncan, R. (2000). Childhood maltreatment and college drop-out rates: Implications for child abuse researchers. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 987–995.
  • Dunne, M., Humphreys, S., & Leach, F. (2003). Gender and violence in schools. Background paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2003/04, Paris: UNESCO.
  • Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 319–345.
  • Finkelhor, D. (1984). Child sexual abuse: New theory and research. New York: Free Press.
  • Ganzel, B. (2008). Trauma: emotional and psychological. Online. Available at www.cornell.edu. Department of Human Development. Retrieved 14 March 2008.
  • Gardner, J., Powell, C., Thomas, J., & Millard, D. (2003). Perceptions and experiences of violence among secondary school students in urban Jamaica. Pan American Journal of Public Health, 14, 2, 97–103.
  • Giaconia, R.M., Reinherz, H.Z., Silverman, A.B., Pakiz, B., Frost, A.K., & Cohen, E. (1995). Traumas and posttraumatic stress disorder in a community population of older adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1369–1380.
  • Groth, A.N., & Burgess, A.W. (1980). Male rape: Offenders and survivors. American Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 806–810.
  • Harber, C., & Muthukrishna, N. (2000). School effectiveness and school improvement in context: The case of South Africa. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 11(4), 421–434.
  • Hariri, A., Bookheimer, S., & Mazziotta, J. (2000). Modulating emotional responses: Effects of a neocortical network on the limbic system. Neuroreport, 11, 43–48.
  • Holmes, E., Brewn, C., & Hennessy, R. (2004). Trauma films, information processing and intrusive memory development. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 133, 3–22.
  • HRW. (2001). Scared at school: Sexual violence against girls in South African schools. New York: Human Rights Watch.
  • Hyman, I., & Snook, P. (1999). Dangerous schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
  • Joshi, P., & Kaschak, D. (1998). Exposure to violence and trauma: Questionnaire for adolescents. International Review of Psychology, 10, 208–215.
  • Kercher, G.A., & McShane, M. (1985). The prevalence of child sexual abuse survivorization in an adult sample of Texas residents. Child Abuse and Neglect, 8, 495–501.
  • Kerlinger, F.N. (2000). Foundations of behavioural research. New York: CBS Publishing.
  • Kinchin, D. (2001). Posttraumatic stress disorder: The invisible injury. London: SAGE.
  • Kinnear, A., & Gray, S. (2005). SPSS 12 made easy. London: SAGE.
  • Klewin, G., Tillmann, K., & Weingart, G. (2005). Violence In school. In W. Heitmeyer & J. Hagan (Eds.), International handbook of violence research. (pp. 863–884). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
  • Kuntz, L. (2000). Unruly classrooms. The UNESCO Courier, January, 14–16.
  • Lott, B., & Maluso, D. (1993). The social learning of gender. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), The psychology of gender. (pp. 99–123). New York: Guilford Press.
  • Mabeda, M., & Prinsloo, E. (2000). Perceptions of discipline and ensuring problems in secondary education. South African Journal of Education, 20(1), 34–41.
  • Mestry, R., Moloi, K., & Mahomed, A. (2007). Perspectives on a zero-tolerance approach to discipline: Towards maintaining a nurturing and secure school environment. Africa Education Review, 4(2), 94–113.
  • Morojele, K., Brook, S., & Kachieng, M. (2006). Perceptions of sexual risk behaviours and substance abuse among adolescents in South Africa: A qualitative investigation. AIDS Care, 18(3), 215–219.
  • Mowson, R., Lapsley, P., Hoffman, A., & Guignard, J. (2002). Preventing lethal violence in schools: The case of entry-based weapon screening. Journal of Health Politics and Law, 27(2), 243–260.
  • Norris, F.H. (1992). Epidemiology of trauma: Frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 409–418.
  • Ntshoe, I. (1999). The impact of political violence on education in South Africa: Past, present, and future. Criminologica,18(3), 61–81.
  • Pakaslahti, L., & Kelikangas-Jarvinen, L. (2000). Comparing peer, teachers, and self-assessments on adolescent direct and indirect aggression. Educational Psychology, 20(2), 177–190.
  • Pino, N.W., & Meier, R.F. (1999). Gender differences in rape reporting. Sex Roles, 40, 979–990.
  • Pretoria News, 28 May 2007.
  • Prinsloo, L. (2006). Sexual harassment and violence in South African schools. South Africa Journal of Education, 26(2), 305–318.
  • Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2003). Research methods for business students (3rd ed.). Harrow: Prentice-Hall.
  • Schooler, J. W., & Engstler-Schooler, T. Y. (1990). Verbal overshadowing of visual memories: Some things are better left unsaid. Cognitive Psychology, 22, 36–71.
  • Schooler, J. W., Fiore, S. M., & Brandimonte, M. A. (1997). At a loss from words: Verbal overshadowing of perceptual memories. In D. L. Medin (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation, Vol 37, pp 291–339. New York: Academic Press.
  • Schunk, D. H. (2004). Learning theories: An educational perspective. New Jersey: Merrill Prentice hall.
  • Theredpoppy. (2008). Managing trauma and stress. Available at www.theredpoppycompany.co.uk/children.htm. Accessed on 17 March 2008.
  • Tolin, T., & Foa, E. (2006). Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: A quantitative review of 25 years of research. Psychological Bulletin, 132(6), 959–992.
  • Valentiner, D., Foa, E., Riggs, D., & Gershuny, B. (1996). Coping strategies and posttraumatic stress disorder in female survivors of sexual and nonsexual assault. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 455–458.
  • Vingerhoets, A., & Van Heck, G. (1990). Gender, coping and psychosomatic symptoms. Psychological Medicine, 20, 125–135.
  • Wong, M. (2007). Managing threats: Safety lessons learned from school shootings. Urban Ed: The magazine of the USC Rossier School of Education (Spring/Summer), 5, 1–4.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.