NOTES
- In this paper, I will use the following terms to describe the indigenous people of the Hawaiian Islands: indigenous, Native, Native Hawaiians, Hawaiians. I will also refer to the settler population (both white and non-white) as settlers, settler immigrants, non-indigenous, non-Natives, non- Hawaiians; and it is comprised by: Caucasians, Japanese, Filipino, Chinese, Black, Korean, Puerto Rican, non-Hawaiian Pacific Islanders and others. See note 33 for a discussion of Pacific Islanders. In Hawai'i, whites or people of Caucasian descent are commonly referred to as “haole.”
- H. Trask, “Feminism and Indigenous Hawaiian Nationalism,” SIGNS 21.4 (Summer 1996): 912.
- Henri Lefebvre quoted in Edward Soja, Postmodern Geographies: The Reassertion of Space in Critical Social Theory (London:Verso, 1989) 80.
- Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space, trans. Donald Nicholson-Smith (Oxford: Blackwell, 1974) 27.
- ibid 76.
- ibid 81.
- Trask, “Feminism” 913.
- Haunani-Kay Trask, From a Native Daughter: Colonialism and Sovereignty in Hawai'i, rev. ed. (Honolulu: U of Hawai'i P, 1999) 19.
- Lilikala Kame'eleihiwa, Native Land and Foreign Desires (Honolulu: Bishop Museum P), 15.
- ibid 318.
- Trask, “Feminism” 911. My emphasis.
- Although Trask specifically defines haole in her essay “Feminism and Indigenous Hawaiian Nationalism” as “Western foreigners”—it would be helpful to think of it as a reference to all non-Natives in the islands. In a subsequent essay, Trask indicts settlers of color, especially those of Asian ancestry, for their collaborations with the haole colonial government and society. See Haunani-Kay Trask, “Settlers of Color and ‘Immigrant’ Hegemony: ‘Locals’ in Hawai'i,” Amerasia 26.2 (2000): 1–24.
- Trask, “Feminism” 912.
- In another project, I examine the two contrasting worlds of settlers and Hawaiians in terms of Michel Foucault's ideas about the heterotopia—the existence of two contradictory spaces occupying the same space at the same time. From the perspective of settlers, these spaces look almost identical. From the perspective of Hawaiians, they are radically different.
- Ivan Karp and Steven D. Lavine, eds., Exhibiting Cultures: The Poetics and Politics of Museum Display (Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution P, 1991); and Ivan Karp, Christine Mullen Kreamer, and Steven D. Lavine, eds., Museums and Communities. The Politics of Public Culture (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution P, 1992).
- Karp, “Introduction: Museums and Communities: The Politics of Public Culture,” Museums and Communities 6.
- Karp, “Introduction” 4.
- ibid.
- ibid 6.
- ibid 12.
- ibid 15.
- Edmund Barry Gaither, “Hey! That's Mine: Thoughts on Pluralism and American Museums,” Museums and Communities 59.
- See Miriam Clavir, Preserving What is Valued (Vancouver: UBC P, 2002) and Christina F. Kreps, Liberating Culture: Cross-cultural Perspectives on Museums, Curation and Heritage Preservation (London: Routledge, 2003).
- See Amy Kaplan's discussion on the “absence of empire from the study of American culture” and other cultural and historical omissions. Amy Kaplan, “Left Alone with America: The Absence of Empire in the Study of American Culture,” Cultures of United States Imperialism, ed. Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease (Durham: Duke UP, 1993) 3–21.
- See United States Joint Session of Congress, The Apology to Native Hawaiians on behalf of the United States for the Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawai'i, 103d Cong., Public Law 103–150, 23 November, 1993.
- Ronald Yamakawa as quoted in Tanya Bricking, “State ‘People's Museum’ Still in Flux,” The Honolulu Advertiser, 1 December, 2002, A-26.
- See State of Hawai'i, 21st Legislature, Senate Resolution 54, 2001.
- ibid.
- University of Hawai'i at Manoa Strategic Plan, 2002–2010, www.uhm.hawaii.edu/vision.
- “Talk Story” in Hawai'i Creole English means the informal sharing of stories. I attended two of the “Talk Story” sessions at the Linekona Center, Honolulu Academy of Arts on December 13, 2002, and January 22, 2004. See the SFCA strategic plan at www.state.hi.us/sfca.
- See Deborah P. Britzman, Kelvin Santiago-Vàlles, Gladys Jiménez-Múñoz and Laura M. Lamash, “Slips that Show and Tell: Fashioning Multiculture as a Problem of Representation,” Race, Identity, and Representation in Education, ed. Cameron McCarthy and Warren Crichlow (New York: Routledge, 1993): 188–99. See also Alicia M. González and Edith A. Tonelli, “Companeros and Partners: The CARA Project,” and John Kuo Wei Tchen, “Creating a Dialogic Museum: The Chinatown History Museum Experiment,” Museums and Communities, 262–284,285–326.
- This ruling is referred to as the “Rice v. Cayetano” decision. The case before the Supreme Court involved a suit brought against the governor of the state of Hawaii, Ben Cayetano, by a haole (white) rancher, Harold “Freddy” Rice, charging that the state conducted an unconstitutional election when it allowed only Native Hawaiians to vote for trustees for the state's Office of Hawaiian Affairs (OHA). According to Rice, his right to vote in this election was illegally denied, violating the 15th Amendment, which upholds a citizen's right to vote regardless of her/his race. The Court agreed with Rice and, in this particular case, determined that Native Hawaiians were like other racial minorities in the U.S. and unlike other Native Americans who are allowed special services not considered to be discriminatory or unconstitutional. Amicus briefs filed by Native organizations and nations in the United States and by the Solicitor General in the Department of Justice urged the justices to consider Native Hawaiians in the same category as Native Americans and Alaskans. See Lehua Kinilau and Jade Danner, “U.S. Supreme Court Considers Rice v. Cayetano,” Ka Leo o Ka Lahui Hawaii (Fall 1999) 2.; and Bill Hoshijo, “The Shame of the Rice v. Cayetano Decision,” The Hawaii Herald (3 March 2000): A-2.
- Unfortunately, a discussion of the complexity of the Native and non-Native communities in Hawai'i is impossible here. There is a significant amount of literature published. For examples see: Michael Haas, ed., Multicultural Hawai'i: The Fabric of a Multiethnic Society (New York: Garland, 1998); Peter T. Manicasx, Social Process in Hawai'i: A Reader (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993, 1995); ‘Oiwi: A Native Hawaiian Journal 2 (2002). For art references see: Joan Clark and Diane Dods, eds., Artists/Hawaii (Honolulu: U of Hawai'i P, 1996); and Momi Cazimero, David J. de la Torre, and Manulani Aluli Meyer, eds., Na Maka Hou: New Visions: Contemporary Native Hawaiian Art (Honolulu: Honolulu Academy of Arts, 2001).
- The position of indigenous Pacific Islanders (e.g., from Samoa or Tonga) is particularly complicated, as they are both Native/indigenous peoples, but settlers in Hawai'i. Many come from an experience of colonialism, have close relationships with the Hawaiian people, and identify with their problems. Hence, they are not considered a hegemonic force as are haoles and Asians.
- For a discussion on indigenous peoples and minorities in international law, see Trask, “Settlers of Color” 13–17.
- Benita Parry, “Resistance Theory/Theorising Resistance or Two Cheers for Nativism,” Colonial Discourse/Postcolonial Theory, ed. Francis Barker, Peter Hulme and Margaret Iversen (Manchester: Manchester UP, 1994) 176.
- ibid 179.
- ibid.
- Cynthia Franklin and Laura Lyons, “Remixing Hybridity: Globalization, Native Resistance, and Cultural Production in Hawai'i,” American Studies 44.1 (Spring 2003): 5–29.
- ibid 6.
- Candace Fujikane and Jonathan Y. Okamura, guest editors, special issue “Whose Vision? Asian Settler Colonialism in Hawai'i,” Amerasia 26.
- See Candace Fujikane's introductory essay in this journal to understand why Asian American scholars might be upset by the challenges to the “past and present roles played by Asians in the colonization of Native Hawaiians.” Fujikane, “Asian Settler Colonialism in Hawai'i,” xv-xxii.
- Eiko Kosasa, “Ideological Images: U.S. Nationalism in Japanese Settler Photographs,” Ibid 66–91.
- Trask, “Settlers of Color” 2–3.
- ibid 2.
- Although she does not refer specifically to Gramsci's concept of the “war of position,” Eiko Kosasa discusses the ideological grip of American immigrant discourse on Japanese Americans in Hawai'i and what they must do to escape its hold. See Kosasa, “Ideological Images” 70–77.
- Fujikane, “Asian Settler Colonialism” xxi.
- Tchen, “Creating a Dialogic Museum” 286.
- ibid 320.
- ibid 317.
- Eilean Hooper-Greenhill, Museums and the Interpretation of Visual Culture (London: Routledge, 2000) xi.
- Hilde S. Hein, The Museum in Transition: A Philosophical Perspective (Washington: Smithsonian Institution P, 2000) 101.
- ibid 101–103.
- ibid.
- ibid 103–106.
- William H. Truettner, ed., The West as America: Reinterpreting Images of the Frontier, 1820–1920 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution P, 1991).
- For a discussion of the repercussions of these controversial exhibitions see Steven C. Dubin, “A Matter of Perspective: Revisionist History and The West as America” and “Battle Royal: The Final Mission of the Enola Gay” in Displays of Power: Controversy in the American Museum from the Enola Gay to Sensation (New York: New York UP, 1999) 152–185, 186–226.
- Marie C. Malaro, Museum Governance: Mission, Ethics, Policy (Washington: Smithsonian Institution P, 1994) 17.
- ibid.
- Trask, Native Daughter, and Linda Tuhiwai Smith, Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples (London: Zed Books, 1999).
- A senior curator from Australia explained that he always tried to “manage the rhetoric” whenever he was soliciting support for indigenous projects from non-indigenous organizations. For instance, he never used the word “genocide;” it was too politically charged. During my fieldwork in Hawai'i (1996–1998), a non-Native writer and supporter of Hawaiian sovereignty objected to my use of the term “colonialism” to describe the political situation in the islands. Although it was accurate, he felt it was too “volatile” to use.
- Cameron McCarthy, “After the Canon: Knowledge and Ideological Representation in the Multicultural Discourse on Curriculum Reform,” Race, Identity, and Representation in Education, ed. Cameron McCarthy and Warren Crichlow (New York: Routledge, 1993) 289–305.
- ibid 291.
- ibid 295.
- ibid 300–301.
- ibid 300.
- R. W. Connell, “Curriculum Politics, Hegemony, and Strategies of Social Change,” Popular Culture: Schooling and Everyday Life (New York: Bergin and Garvey, 1989) 119.
- Connell, “Curriculum, Politics, Hegemony” 125. Connell argues his point by using the example of race: “If you wish to teach about ethnicity and race relations, for instance, a more comprehensive and deeper understanding is possible if you construct your curriculum from the point of view of the subordinated ethnic groups than if you work from the point of view of the dominant one. Racism is a qualitatively better organizing principle concept than natural inferiority, though each has its roots in a particular experience and embodies a social interest.” Ibid 125.
- Connell explains that the view of the proletariat is essential to the critique of capitalist economy, not because working class people are better analysts, but because their views and actions allow us to imagine and work toward a “reconfiguration of the whole domain of culture.” Connell borrows insights from the work of Georg Lukács on the proletariat. Ibid 126.
- M. Annette Jaimes Guerrero, “Academic Apartheid: American Indian Studies and ‘Multiculturalism’,” Mapping Multiculturalism, ed. Avery F. Gordon and Christopher Newfield (Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 1996) 49.
- ibid 56.