Beyond stress and coping: the relevance of critical theoretical perspectives to conceptualising racial discrimination in health research

References

• Allan, B., & Smylie, J. (2015). First Peoples, second class treatment: The role of racism in the health and well-being of Indigenous peoples in Canada. Retrieved from Toronto, ON: http://www.wellesleyinstitute.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Report-First-Peoples-Second-Class-Treatment-Final.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Anaya, J. (2014). Report of the special rapporteur on the rights of Indigenous peoples, James Anaya, on the situation of Indigenous peoples in Canada. Retrieved from http://unsr.jamesanaya.org/country-reports/the-situation-of-indigenous-peoples-in-canada
   Google Scholar
• Anthias, F. (2013). Intersectional what? Social divisions, intersectionality and levels of analysis. Ethnicities, 13(1), 3–19. doi: 10.1177/1468796812463547
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey, Z. D., Krieger, N., Agénor, M., Graves, J., Linos, N., & Bassett, M. T. (2017). Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: Evidence and interventions. The Lancet, 389(10077), 1453–1463. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30569-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barad, K. (2014). Diffracting diffraction: Cutting together-apart. Parallax, 20(3), 168–187. doi: 10.1080/13534645.2014.927623
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bastos, J. L., Celeste, R. K., Faerstein, E., & Barros, A. J. D. (2010). Racial discrimination and health: A systematic review of scales with a focus on their psychometric properties. Social Science & Medicine, 70(7), 1091–1099. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.12.020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Battiste, M. (Ed.). (2000). Reclaiming indigenous voice and vision. Vancouver: UBC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bauer, G. R. (2014). Incorporating intersectionality theory into population health research methodology: Challenges and the potential to advance health equity. Social Science & Medicine, 110, 10–17. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.03.022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bauer, G. R., & Scheim, A. I. (2019a). Advancing quantitative intersectionality research methods: Intracategorical and intercategorical approaches to shared and differential constructs. Social Science & Medicine (1982), doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.03.018
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bauer, G. R., & Scheim, A. I. (2019b). Methods for analytic intercategorical intersectionality in quantitative research: Discrimination as a mediator of health inequalities. Social Science & Medicine (1982), doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.12.015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berg, K., McLane, P., Eshkakogan, N., Mantha, J., Lee, T., Crowshoe, C., & Phillips, A. (2019). Perspectives on Indigenous cultural competency and safety in Canadian hospital emergency departments: A scoping review. International Emergency Nursing, doi: 10.1016/j.ienj.2019.01.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brah, A., & Pheonix, A. (2004). Ain't I a woman? Revising intersectionality. Journal of International Women's Studies, 5(3), 75–86.
   Google Scholar
• Brewer, R. M. (1993). Theorizing race, class and gender: The new scholarship of Black feminist intellectuals and Black women's labor. In S. M. James & A. P. Busia (Eds.), Theorizing Black feminisms: The visionary pragmatism of Black women (pp. 13–30). New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Brewer, R. M. (2011). Black women's studies: From theory to transformative practice. Socialism and Democracy, 25(1), 146–156. doi: 10.1080/08854300.2011.552552
   Google Scholar
• Browne, A. J. (2017). Moving beyond description: Closing the health equity gap by redressing racism impacting Indigenous populations. Social Science and Medicine, 184, 23–26. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.04.045
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Browne, A. J., Varcoe, C., Lavoie, J., Smye, V., Wong, S., Krause, M., … Fridkin, A. (2016). Enhancing health care equity with indigenous populations: Evidence-based strategies from an ethnographic study. BMC Health Services Research, 16(544). doi: 10.1186/s12913-016-1707-9
   Google Scholar
• Browne, A. J., Varcoe, C., Wong, S. T., Smye, V. L., & Khan, K. B. (2014). Can ethnicity data collected at an organizational level be useful in addressing health and healthcare inequities? Ethnicity and Health, 19(2), 240–254. doi: 10.1080/13557858.2013.814766
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Came, H., & Griffith, D. (2018). Tackling racism as a “wicked” public health problem: Enabling allies in anti-racism praxis. Social Science & Medicine, 199, 181–188. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.03.028
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canadian Human Rights Tribunal. (2016). First nations child and family caring society of Canada et al. v. Attorney General of Canada (for the Minister of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada). Retrieved from Ottawa, ON: http://decisions.chrt-tcdp.gc.ca/chrt-tcdp/decisions/en/item/127700/index.do
   Google Scholar
• Carter, R. T., Lau, M. Y., Johnson, V., & Kirkinis, K. (2017). Racial discrimination and health outcomes among racial/ethnic minorities: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development, 45(4), 232–259. doi: 10.1002/jmcd.12076
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins, P. H. (1986). Learning from the outsider within: The sociological significance of black feminist thought. Social Problems, 33(6), S14–S32. doi: 10.1525/sp.1986.33.6.03a00020
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins, P. H. (1993). Toward an afrocentric feminist epistemology. In A. M. Jaggar & P. S. Rothenberg (Eds.), Feminist frameworks: Alternative theoretical accounts of the relations between women and men (3rd ed., pp. 93–103). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Incorporated.
   Google Scholar
• Collins, P. H. (2000). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Currie, C., Wild, T. C., Schopflocher, D., & Laing, L. (2015). Racial discrimination, post-traumatic stress and prescription drug problems among Aboriginal Canadians. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 106(6), e382–e387.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dale, S. K., Dean, T., Sharma, R., Reid, R., Saunders, S., & Safren, S. A. (2019). Microaggressions and discrimination relate to barriers to care among black women living with HIV. AIDS Patient Care & STDs, 33(4), 175–183. doi: 10.1089/apc.2018.0258
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Tocqueville, A., & Pitts, J. (2003). Writings on empire and slavery. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dua, E. (1999). Canadian anti-racist feminist thought: Scratching the surface of racism. In E. Dua & A. Robertson (Eds.), Scratching the surface: Canadian anti-racist feminist thought (pp. 7–31). Toronto, ON: Women's Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dubois, W. E. B. (1903). The souls of black folk. Retrieved from https://www.bartleby.com/114/
   Google Scholar
• Ermine, W. (2007). The ethical space of engagement. Indigenous Law Journal, 6(1), 193–203.
   Google Scholar
• Essed, P. (2002). Everyday racism: A new approach to the study of racism. In P. Essed & D. T. Goldberg (Eds.), Race critical theories (pp. 176–194). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Evans, C. R. (2019). Modeling the intersectionality of processes in the social production of health inequalities. Social Science & Medicine (1982), doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.01.017
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fanon, F. (1963). The wretched of the earth. Harmondsworth, United Kingdom: Penguin.
   Google Scholar
• Frankenberg, R. (1993). White women, race matters: The social construction of whiteness. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
   Google Scholar
• Freitas, E. D. (2017). Karen Barad’s quantum ontology and posthuman ethics: Rethinking the concept of relationality. Qualitative Inquiry, 23(9), 741–748. doi: 10.1177/1077800417725359
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gagné, T., & Veenstra, G. (2017). Inequalities in hypertension and diabetes in Canada: Intersections between racial identity, gender, and income. Ethnicity & Disease, 27(4), 371–378. doi: 10.18865/ed.27.4.371
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Godley, J. (2018). Everyday discrimination in Canada: Prevalence and patterns. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 43(2), 111–142.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldberg, D. T., & Essed, P. (2002). Introduction: From racial demarcations to multiple identifications. In P. Essed & D. T. Goldberg (Eds.), Race critical theories (pp. 1–11). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Government of Canada. (1988). Canadian multiculturalism act. Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada.
   Google Scholar
• Green, M. A., Evans, C. R., & Subramanian, S. V. (2017). Can intersectionality theory enrich population health research? Social Science & Medicine, 178, 214–216. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.02.029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hankivsky, O., Grace, D., Hunting, G., Giesbrecht, M., Fridkin, A., Rudrum, S., … Clark, N. (2014). An intersectionality-based policy analysis framework: Critical reflections on a methodology for advancing equity. International Journal for Equity in Health, 13, 119–119. doi: 10.1186/s12939-014-0119-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harnois, C. E. (2014). Are perceptions of discrimination unidimensional, oppositional, or intersectional? Examining the relationship among perceived racial–ethnic-, gender-, and age-based discrimination. Sociological Perspectives, 57(4), 470–487. doi: 10.1177/0731121414543028
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henry, F., Rees, T., & Tator, C. (2010). The colour of democracy: Racism in Canadian society (4th ed.). Toronto, ON: Thomas Nelson.
   Google Scholar
• Hollin, G., Forsyth, I., Giraud, E., & Potts, T. (2017). (Dis)entangling Barad: Materialisms and ethics. Social Studies of Science, 47(6), 918–941. doi: 10.1177/0306312717728344
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hooks, B. (1981). Ain't I a woman: Black women and feminism. Boston, MA: South End Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ingraham, C. (1994). The heterosexual imaginary: Feminist sociology and theories of gender. Sociological Theory, 12(2), 203–212.
   Google Scholar
• James, W. (1948). Essays in pragmatism. New York, NY: Hafner.
   Google Scholar
• Kressin, N. R., Raymond, K. L., & Manze, M. M. (2008). Perceptions of race/ethnicity-based discrimination: A review of measures and evaluation of their usefulness for the health care setting. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 19(3), 697–730. doi: 10.1353/hpu.0.0041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krieger, N. (2014). Discrimination and health inequities. International Journal of Health Services, 44(4), 643–710. doi: 10.2190/HS.44.4.b
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kugelmass, H. (2016). “Sorry, I'm not accepting new patients”: An audit study of access to mental health care. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 57(2), 168–183. doi: 10.1177/0022146516647098
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Labonté, R., & Rukert, A. (2019). Health equity in a globalizing era: Past challenges, future prospects. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• LaRocque, E. D. (1993). Violence in Aboriginal communities. In Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (Ed.), The path to healing (pp. 72–89). Ottawa, Canada: Canada Communications Group.
   Google Scholar
• LaRocque, E. D. (1996). The colonization of a Native woman scholar. In C. Miller & P. Chuchryk (Eds.), Women of the first nations: Power, wisdom, and strength (pp. 11–17). Winnipeg: The University of Manitoba Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lorde, A. (1984). Sister outsider. Freedom, CA: The Crossing Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mohanty, C. T. (2004). Feminism without borders: Decolonizing theory, practicing solidarity. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Moraga, C., & Anzaldua, G. E. (2015). Introduction, 1981. In C. Moraga & G. E. Anzaldua (Eds.), This bridge called my back: Writings of radical women of colour (4th ed., pp. xliii–xlx). Albany, NY: State University of New York.
   Google Scholar
• Mullings, L., & Schulz, A. J. (2006). Intersectionality and health: An introduction. In A. J. Schulz & L. Mullings (Eds.), Gender, race, class, and health: Intersectional approaches (pp. 3–17). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
   Google Scholar
• Olah, M. E., Gaisano, G., & Hwang, S. W. (2013). The effect of socioeconomic status on access to primary care: An audit study. CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal, 185(6), E263–E269. doi: 10.1503/cmaj.121383
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omi, M., & Winant, H. (2002). Racial formation. In P. Essed & D. T. Goldberg (Eds.), Race critical theories (pp. 123–145). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2018). OECD economic surveys: Canada 2018. Retrieved from https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/content/publication/eco_surveys-can-2018-en
   Google Scholar
• Paradies, Y. (2016). Racism and health. In S. R. Quah & W. C. Cockerham (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of public health (2nd ed., Vol. 6, pp. 249–259). Oxford: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Priest, N., & Williams, D. R. (2018). Racial discrimination and racial disparities in health. In B. Major, J. F. Dovidio, & B. G. Link (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of stigma, discrimination, and health (pp. 163–182). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Public Health Agency of Canada, & Pan-Canadian Public Health Network. (2018). Key health inequalities in Canada. A National Portrait. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/phac-aspc/documents/services/publications/science-research/key-health-inequalities-canada-national-portrait-executive-summary/hir-full-report-eng.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Schneider, E. C., Sarnak, D. O., Squires, D., & Shah, A. (2017). Mirror, mirror 2017: International comparison reflects flaws and opportunities for better US health care. Retrieved from https://interactives.commonwealthfund.org/2017/july/mirror-mirror/
   Google Scholar
• Shariff-Marco, S., Breen, N., Landrine, H., Reeve, B. B., Krieger, N., Gee, G. C., … Johnson, T. P. (2011). Measuring everyday racial/ethinic discrimination in health surveys. Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race, 8(1), 159–177. doi: 10.1017/S1742058X11000129
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skosireva, A., O’Campo, P., Zerger, S., Chambers, C., Gapka, S., & Stergiopoulos, V. (2014). Different faces of discrimination: Perceived discrimination among homeless adults with mental illness in healthcare settings. BMC Health Services Research, 14, 1–11. doi: 10.1186/1472-6963-14-376
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smylie, J., Firestone, M., Cochran, L., Prince, C., Maracle, S., & Morley, M. (2011). Our health counts project: Urban aboriginal health database research project. Retrieved from Hamilton, ON.
   Google Scholar
• Spivak, G. (1988). Can the subaltern speak? In C. Nelson & L. Grossberg (Eds.), Marxism and the interpretation of culture (pp. 271–316). Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press.
   Google Scholar
• Statistics Canada. (2011). Immigration and ethnocultural diversity in Canada. Retrieved from Ottawa, ON: https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/as-sa/99-010-x/99-010-x2011001-eng.cfm
   Google Scholar
• Statistics Canada. (2013). Ethnic origin and visible minorities. Ethnocultural portrait of Canada: Archived content. Retrieved from http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/rt-td/eth-eng.cfm
   Google Scholar
• Tawa, J. (2016). Belief in race as biological: Early life influences, intergroup outcomes, and the process of “unlearning”. Race and Social Problems, 8(3), 244–255. doi: 10.1007/s12552-016-9176-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas, D. (2005). I am Canadian. Canadian Social Trends, 76, 1–7.
   Google Scholar
• Tong, R. (1998). Feminist thought: A more comprehensive introduction (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
   Google Scholar
• van de Kleut, G. (2011). The whiteness of literacy practice in Ontario. Race Ethnicity and Education, 14(5), 699–726. doi: 10.1080/13613324.2011.585338
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varcoe, C., Brown, H., Calam, B., Harvey, T., & Tallio, M. (2013). Help bring back the celebration of life: A community-based participatory study of rural Aboriginal women's maternity experiences and outcomes. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 13(1), 26.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Varcoe, C., Browne, A. J., Ford-Gilboe, M., Dion Stout, M., McKenzie, H., Price, R., … Merritt-Gray, M. (2017). Reclaiming our spirits: Development and pilot testing of a health promotion intervention for indigenous women who have experienced intimate partner violence. Research In Nursing & Health, 40(3), 237–254. doi: 10.1002/nur.21795
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varcoe, C., Browne, A. J., Wong, S. T., & Smye, V. L. (2009). Harms and benefits: Collecting ethnicity data in a clinical context. Social Science and Medicine, 68(9), 1659–1666. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.02.034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varcoe, C., Ford-Gilboe, M., Browne, A. J., Perrin, N., Bungay, V., McKenzie, H., … Dion Stout, M. (2019). The efficacy of a health promotion intervention for Indigenous women: Reclaiming our spirits. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 0886260518820818. doi: 10.1177/0886260518820818
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Veenstra, G. (2019). Black, white, black and white: Mixed race and health in Canada. Ethnicity & Health, 24(2), 113–124. doi: 10.1080/13557858.2017.1315374
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waelde, L. C., Pennington, D., Mahan, C., Mahan, R., Kabour, M., & Marquett, R. (2010). Psychometric properties of the race-related events scale. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 2(1), 4–11. doi: 10.1037/a0019018
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weber, L. (2006). Reconstructing the landscape of health disparities research: Promoting dialogue and collaboration between feminist intersectional and biomedical paradigms. In A. J. Schulz & L. Mullings (Eds.), Gender, race, class and health: Intersectional approaches (pp. 21–59). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
   Google Scholar
• Williams, D. R., Lawrence, J. A., & Davis, B. A. (2019). Racism and health: Evidence and needed research. Annual Review of Public Health, 40, 105–125. doi: 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040218-043750
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wyatt, R., Laderman, M., Botwinick, L., Mate, K., & Whittington, J. (2016). Achieving health equity: A guide for health care organizations. Retrieved from Cambridge, MA: http://www.ihi.org/resources/Pages/IHIWhitePapers/Achieving-Health-Equity.aspx
   Google Scholar
• Zinn, M. B., & Dill, B. T. (1996). Theorizing difference from multiracial feminism. Feminist Studies, 22(2), 321–332.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Žižek, S. (2008). Violence. New York, NY: Picador.
   Google Scholar