Violent conflict and National identity among the Pakistani Pukhtuns (Pashtuns) in Swat Pakistan: A theoretical and empirical exploration

References

• Abbas, H. (2009). Defining the Punjabi Taliban Network. Combating Terrorism Center at West Point, 2(4), https://ctc.usma.edu/defining-the-punjabi-taliban-network/
   Google Scholar
• Adeney, K. (2007). Federalism and Ethnic Conflict Regulation in India and Pakistan. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230601949
   Google Scholar
• Adnan, R. (2012). How bad governance led to conflict: The case of Swat, Pakistan. Munich Personal RePEc Archive, MPRA Paper No. 35357. https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/35357/1/MPRA_paper_35357.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Ahmed, A. (1980). Pukhtun economy and society: Traditional structure and economic development in a Tribal Society. Routledge. https://www.routledge.com/Pukhtun-Economy-and-Society-Routledge-Revivals-Traditional-Structure/Ahmed/p/book/9780415688116
   Google Scholar
• Ahmed, F. (1998). Ethnicity and politics in Pakistan. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ahmed, K. (2001). Pakistan: Behind the ideological mask: Facts about great men we don’t want to know. Vanguard Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ahmed, S. (2017, January 28). Persoanl Interview/Disucssion [Mingora].
   Google Scholar
• Alavi, H. (1986). Ethnicity, muslim society, and the Pakistan ideology. In A. Weiss (Ed.), Islamic reassertion in Pakistan: The application of Islamic laws in a modern state. Syracuse University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, B. (1983). Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism (p. 256). Verso Books.
   Google Scholar
• Anwar, Z., & Ahmad, W. (2017). Augmenting the conflict in swat: Loopholes in legal governance. Journal of Political Studies, 24((02|2)), 417–432. http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/pols/pdf-files/8_24_2_17.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Armstrong, J. (1982). Nations before nationalism. University of North Carolina Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ashfaq, M. (2017, January 28). Personal Interview/Discussion [Dherai Swat].
   Google Scholar
• Aslam, W., & Neads, A. (2021). Renegotiating societal-military relations in Pakistan: The case of the Pashtun Tahafuz Movement. Democratization, 28(2), 265–284. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2020.1816965
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avis, W. (2016). Drivers of conflict in the Swat Valley, Pakistan (p. 18). GSDRC.
   Google Scholar
• Ayres, A. (2009). Speaking like a state: Language and nationalism in Pakistan. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511596629
   Google Scholar
• Azim, S., Jan, M. A., & Williams, N. (2018). Conflict and ethnic identity: Pukhtunwali and Purdah in conflict ridden Swat, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Criminology, 10(3), 64–85.
   Google Scholar
• Azim, S. W. (2019). Ethnicity, conflict and identity: The sense of belonging among the Pakhtuns of Swat, Pakistan [PHD thesis]. University of Peshawar. http://prr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/bitstream/123456789/12604/1/Syed_Wasif_Azim_Political_Sci_2019_UoP_Peshawar_18.07.2019.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Balcells, L. (2006). The effects of wars on political identities: Explaining ideological change and continuity after the Spanish Civil War (1936-39). Annual meeting of the American Political Science Association.
   Google Scholar
• Bansal, A. (2011). Ethno-nationalism in Pakistan: Challenges for the state – an overview. In Sagarika Dutt & Alok Bansal (Eds.), South Asian security (pp. 115–135). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Barth, F. (1956). Ecologic relationships of ethnic groups in Swat, North Pakistan. American Anthropologist, 58(6), 1079–1089. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1956.58.6.02a00080
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barth, F. (1969). Introduction. In F. Barth (Ed.), Ethnic groups and boundaries the social organization of culture difference (pp. 01–38). Waveland Press, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Behuria, A. K. (2005). Myth of the Monolith: The challenge of diversity in Pakistan. Strategic Analysis, 29(1), 61–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/09700161.2005.12049791
   Google Scholar
• Benjamin, B. (2006). The case study: Storytelling in the industrial age and beyond. On the Horizon, 14(4), 159–164. https://doi.org/10.1108/10748120610708069
   Google Scholar
• Brubaker, R., Feischmidt, M., Fox, J. E., & Grancea, L. (2008). Nationalist politics and everyday ethnicity in a Transylvanian town. Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Calhoun, C. (2016). The importance of imagined communities – and Benedict Anderson. Debats. Revista de Cultura, Poder i Societat, 1, 11–16. https://revistadebats.net/article/view/1686.
   Google Scholar
• Cloughley, B. (2014). A history of the Pakistan Army: Wars and insurrections (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, S. (2005). The idea of Pakistan. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Conversi, D. (2015). War and nationalism. In W. A. Darity (Ed.), International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences (2nd ed., pp. 363–370). Macmillan Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.96038-0
   Google Scholar
• Crain, M. (1990). The social construction of national identity in Highland Ecuador. Anthropological Quarterly, 63(1), 43–59. https://doi.org/10.2307/3317959
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dada, F. A. (2016, December 30). Personal Interview/Discussion [Kabal Swat].
   Google Scholar
• Dada, H. K. (2017, February 5). Personal Interview/Discussion [Mingora].
   Google Scholar
• Dada, L. (2017, January 29). Personal Interview/Discsussion [Mingora].
   Google Scholar
• Farooq, M. (2017, January 26). Focused group discussion [Kabal Swat].
   Google Scholar
• Feroz, A. (1985). Pakistan’s problems of national integration. In M. A. Khan (Ed.), Islam, politics and the state: The Pakistan experience (pp. 240–255). Zed Books.
   Google Scholar
• Fleischner, J. (2011). Governance and Militancy in Pakistan’s Swat Valley (p. 12). Center for Strategic and International Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Fox, J. E. (2006). Consuming the nation: Holidays, sports, and the production of collective belonging. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 29(2), 217–236. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870500465207
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox, J. E., & Miller-Idriss, C. (2008). Everyday nationhood. Ethnicities, 8(4), 536–563. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468796808088925
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gans, C. (2003). The limits of nationalism. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511490231
   Google Scholar
• Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures: Selected essays. Basic Books, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Gellner, E. (1983). Nations and nationalism. Cornell University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Glatzer, B. (1998). Being Pashtun – being Muslim: Concepts of person and war in Afghanistan. In B. Glatzer (Ed.), Essays on south Asian society: Culture and politics II (pp. 83–94). Zentrum Moderner Orient, Arbeitshefte.
   Google Scholar
• Grosby, S. (2005). Nationalism: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Habib, S. (2017, January 27). Personal Interview/Discussion [Charbagh Swat].
   Google Scholar
• Hall, J. A., & Malesevic, S. (Eds.). (2013). Introduction: Wars and nationalisms. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139540964.001
   Google Scholar
• Hammersley, M., & Atkinson, P. (2007). Ethnography: Principles in practice (3rd ed.). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Haqqani, H. (2005). Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military. Carnegie Endowment for Int’l Peace.
   Google Scholar
• Hobsbawm, E. (1992). Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, myth, reality (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CCOL0521439612
   Google Scholar
• Hobsbawm, E., & Ranger, T. O. (1983). The invention of tradition. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hutchinson, J. (2004). Nations as zones of conflict. Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446217979
   Google Scholar
• Hutchinson, J. (2017). Nationalism and war. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Iqbal, J. (2003). Islam and Pakistan’s identity. Iqbal Academy : Vanguard Books.
   Google Scholar
• Iqbal, K. (2011). Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan: A global threat. Conflict and Peace Studies, 04((03|3)), 1–10. https://www.academia.edu/6439231/Tehrik_e_Taliban_Pakistan_A_Global_Threat
   Google Scholar
• Jaffrelot, C. (2005). Introduction. In C. Jaffrelot (Ed.), Pakistan, nation, nationalism and the state. Vanguard.
   Google Scholar
• Jalal, A. (1995). Conjuring Pakistan: History as official imagining. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 27(1), 73–89. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020743800061596
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jan, M. A. (2010). Contested and contextual identities: Ethnicity, religion and identity among the Pakhtuns of Malakand, Pakistan. [PHD thesis]. University of York. http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/1179/
   Google Scholar
• Jan, M. A., & Aman, S. (2015). Islam and Pakhtunwali: Convergence and divergence of religious and cultural identities among the Pakhtuns of Pakistan. Hamdard Islamicus, 6(2), 14–27. http://archive.org/details/15IslamAndPakhtunwali
   Google Scholar
• Jan, M., Paracha, S. A., Anwar, M., & Imran, M. (2011). Military operations in Waziristan: Public perceptions in Pakistan on Terra. Gomal University Journal of Research, 27((01|1)), 93–109.
   Google Scholar
• Kakar, R. (2020, February 23). Demistifying the PTM. Dawn.Com. https://www.dawn.com/news/1536068
   Google Scholar
• Kalyvas, S. N. (2008). Ethnic defection in Civil War. Comparative Political Studies, 41(8), 1043–1068. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414008317949
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khan, A. (2005). Politics of identity: Ethnic nationalism and the state in Pakistan. SAGE.
   Google Scholar
• Khan, F. (2017, January 27). Personal Interview/Discussion [Charbagh Swat].
   Google Scholar
• Khan, H. (2018). Social class and it’s interplay with other social factors in Swat Taliban movement: An anthropological inquiry. Anthropological Notebooks, 13.
   Google Scholar
• Khan, S. (2009, June 24). Imperialism, religion and class in Swat • International Socialism. International Socialism, 123. http://isj.org.uk/imperialism-religion-and-class-in-swat/
   Google Scholar
• Khan, S. U., Khalid, A., & Elahi, N. (2020). Old wine in a new bottle: Governance, fragility and armed conflict trio in Swat Valley, Pakistan. Cogent Social Sciences, 6(1), 1770432. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2020.1770432
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khan, T. (2016). Pakistanizing Pashtun: The lingusitic and Cultural Disruption and re-invention of Pashtun [PHD thesis]. American University.
   Google Scholar
• Khor, S. N. (2017, April 28). Personal Interview/Discussion [Saidu Shareef Swat].
   Google Scholar
• Kiely, R., Bechhofer, F., Stewart, R., & McCrone, D. (2001). The markers and rules of Scottish national identity. The Sociological Review, 49(1), 33–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-954X.00243
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kugelman, M., & Weinstein, A. (2021, January 4). In Pakistan, a tale of two very different political movements. Lawfare. https://www.lawfareblog.com/pakistan-tale-two-very-different-political-movements
   Google Scholar
• Kukreja, V. (2020). Ethnic diversity, political aspirations and state response: A case study of Pakistan. Indian Journal of Public Administration, 66(1), 28–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/0019556120906585
   Google Scholar
• Lala, A. (2016, December 31). Personal Interview/Discussion [Kabal Swat].
   Google Scholar
• Lala, A. (2017, February 4). Personal Interview/Discussion [Mingora].
   Google Scholar
• Lala, M. (2017, January 26). Focused Group Discussion [Kabal Swat].
   Google Scholar
• Laszlo, J. (2013). Historical tales and national identity. Routledge. https://www.routledge.com/Historical-Tales-and-National-Identity-An-introduction-to-narrative-social/Laszlo/p/book/9780415704700
   Google Scholar
• Mansbach, R., & Rhodes, E. (2007). The national state and identity politics: State institutionalization and ‘markers’ of national identity. Geopolitics, 12(03), 426–458. https://doi.org/10.1080/14650040701305633
   Google Scholar
• Metcalf, B. (2004). Islamic contestations: Essays on Muslims in India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mohammad, N., Khan, H., & Jan, M. (2009). Circulatory land tenure and its social and ecological impacts. Mountain Research and Development, 29(1), 59–66. https://doi.org/10.1659/mrd.898
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nawaz, S. (2009). Crossed swords: Pakistan, its army, and the wars within (1st ed.). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• The Shariah Nizam-E-Adl Regulation 2009, no. N.W.F.P. REG. NO. I OF 2009. (2010). http://kpcode.kp.gov.pk/uploads/the_Shariah_Nizam-e-Adl_Regulation,_2009.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Orakzai, S. B. (2011). Conflict in the Swat Valley of Pakistan: Pakhtun culture and peacebuilding theory-practice application. Journal of Peacebuilding & Development, 6(1), 35–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/15423166.2011.179868996709
   Google Scholar
• Paterson, M., & Higgs, J. (2005). Using hermeneutics as a qualitative research approach in professional practice. The Qualitative Report, 10(2), 339–357. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2005.1853
   Google Scholar
• PBS. (2017). Pakistan population. Pakistan Bureau of Statistics.
   Google Scholar
• Powell, W. W., & DiMaggio, P. J. (Eds.). (1991). The new institutionalism in organizational analysis (1st ed.). University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Qureshi, I. H. (1969). The struggle for Pakistan. University of Karachi.
   Google Scholar
• Rahman, T. (1997). Language and politics in Pakistan. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rana, M. A. (2009). Taliban insurgency in Pakistan: A counterinsurgency perspective. Islamabad: Pak Institute of Peace Studies (PIPS).
   Google Scholar
• Rittenberg, S. (1988). Ethnicity, nationalism, and the Pakhtuns: The independence movement in India’s north-west frontier province. Carolina Academic Pr.
   Google Scholar
• Rome, S.-. (1999). Merger of Swat state with Pakistan: Causes and effects. Modern Asia Research Centre.
   Google Scholar
• Rome, S.-. (2008). Swat state, 1915-1969: From genesis to merger: An analysis of political, administrative, socio-political, and economic development (Illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rome, S.-. (2009). Swat: A critical analysis (p. 32). Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies. https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/95598/RP18-Rome-Swat.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Rome, S. (2011). Crises and reconciliation in swat. Pakistaniaat: A Journal of Pakistan Studies, 3(1), 53–79. http://pakistaniaat.org/index.php/pak/article/view/101
   Google Scholar
• Saigol, R. (2012). The multiple self: Interfaces between Pashtun nationalism and religious conflict on the frontier. South Asian History and Culture. 3(2), 197–214. https://doi.org/10.1080/19472498.2012.664418
   Google Scholar
• Saleem, S. (2016, December 31). Personal Interview/Discussion [Hazara Kabal].
   Google Scholar
• Samad, Y. (1995a). A nation in turmoil: Nationalism and ethnicity in Pakistan, 1937-1958. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Samad, Y. (1995b). Pakistan or Punjabistan: Crisis of national identity. International Journal of Punjab Studies, 02(01), 23–42.
   Google Scholar
• Samad, Y. (2007). Pakistan: From minority rights to majoritarianism. In Y. Samad & P. Gyanendra (Eds.), Fault lines of nationhood (pp. 63–138). Roli Books.
   Google Scholar
• Seidman, I. (2006). Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences. Teachers College Press.
   Google Scholar
• Shafqat, S. (2007). New perspectives on Pakistan: Visions for the future. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Shah, A. (2014). The army and democracy: Military politics in Pakistan (Illustrated ed.). Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Shah, K. M., & Sareen, S. (2019). The Mohajir: Identity and politics in multiethnic Pakistan. ORF Occasional Paper No. 222. ORF: Observer Research Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Shaikh, F. (1989). Community and consensus in Islam: Muslim representation in colonial India, 1860-1947. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Shaikh, F. (2009). Making sense of Pakistan. Hurst and Company.
   Google Scholar
• Siddiqa, A. (2016). Military, Inc.: Inside Pakistan’s Military Economy (2nd ed.). Pluto Press.
   Google Scholar
• Siddiqi, F. H. (2012). The politics of ethnicity in Pakistan: The Baloch, Sindhi and Mohajir ethnic movements. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203123089
   Google Scholar
• Smith, A. (1986). The ethnic origins of nations | Wiley. Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, A. D. (1991). National identity. University of Nevada Press.
   Google Scholar
• Swati, M. (2017). Personal Interview/Discussion [Mingora Swat].
   Google Scholar
• Talbot, I. (2002). The Punjabization of Pakistan: Myth or reality? In C. Jaffrelot (Ed.), Pakistan: Nationalism without a nation? (pp. 51–63). Manohar. https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/393424/
   Google Scholar
• Ullah, M. (2017, January 1). Personal Inerview/Discussion [Mingora].
   Google Scholar
• Usman, M. (2018). Islam & Pakistan: The way I understand. https://resolver.obvsg.at/urn:nbn:at:at-ubi:1-31419
   Google Scholar
• van den Berghe, P. L. (1978). Race and ethnicity: A sociobiological perspective. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 1(4), 401–411. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.1978.9993241
   Google Scholar
• van Evera, S. (1994). Hypotheses on nationalism and war. International Security, 18(4), 5–39. https://doi.org/10.2307/2539176
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veer, P. v. d. (1994). Religious nationalism: Hindus and Muslims in India. University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Verkaaik, O. (2004). Migrants and militants: Fun and urban violence in Pakistan. Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Verkaaik, O. (2007). Ethnicizing Islam: ‘Sindhi Sufis’, ‘Muhajir Modernist’ and ‘Tribal Islamists’ in Pakistan. In S. Shafqat (Ed.), New perspectives on Pakistan: Vision For the future (pp. 86–103). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wahab, F., Azim, S., & Jan, M. (2020). The testimony of traumatic and violent conflict: Pukhtu poetry in Swat in retrospect. Journal of Peace Development & Communication, 04((02|2)), 16–42. https://doi.org/10.36968/JPDC-V04-I02-02
   Google Scholar
• Weiss, A. (1999). Pakistan: Some progress, sobering challenges. In S. Harrison & D. Kux (Eds.), India and Pakistan: The first fifty years (pp. 132–152). Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Weiss, A. M. (1999). Women, civil society and politics in Pakistan. Citizenship Studies, 3(1), 141–150. https://doi.org/10.1080/13621029908420704
   Google Scholar
• Yack, B. (2012). Nationalism and the moral psychology of community. University of Chicago Press. https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/N/bo12893566.html
   Google Scholar
• Yusafzai, F. (2017, January 28). Personal Interview/Discussion [Kabal Swat].
   Google Scholar
• Zafar, R. (2011). Development and the Battle for Swat. Al Nakhlah, Spring, 10. https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/journals/aln/aln804/f_0021637_17900.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Zubair, T. (2015). The ignored Dardic culture of Swat. Journal of Languages and Culture, 6(5), 30–38. https://doi.org/10.5897/JLC2015.0308
   Google Scholar