Pushing the Limits: Palynological Investigations at the Margin of the Greenland Ice Sheet in the Norse Western Settlement

References

• Amorosi, T., P. C. Buckland, K. J. Edwards, I. Mainland, T. H. McGovern, J. P. Sadler, and P. Skidmore. 1998. “They Did Not Live by Grass Alone: The Politics and Palaeoecology of Animal Fodder in the North Atlantic Region.” Environmental Archaeology 1: 41–54. doi: https://doi.org/10.1179/env.1996.1.1.41
   Google Scholar
• Arneborg, J., and H. C. Gulløv. 1998. Man, Culture and Environment in Ancient Greenland. Danish Polar Centre Publication No. 4. Copenhagen: Danish National Museum & Danish Polar Center.
   Google Scholar
• Barlow, L. K., J. P. Sadler, A. E. J. Ogilvie, P. C. Buckland, T. Amorosi, J. H. Ingimundarson, P. Skidmore, A. J. Dugmore, and T. H. McGovern. 1997. “Interdisciplinary Investigations of the End of the Norse Western Settlement in Greenland.” The Holocene 7: 489–499. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/095968369700700411
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berglund, J. 1986. “The Decline of the Norse Settlements in Greenland.” Arctic Anthropology 23: 109–135.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birks, H. J. B., and J. M. Line. 1992. “The Use of Rarefaction Analysis for Estimating Palynological Richness from Quaternary Pollen-Analytical Data.” The Holocene 2: 2–10.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blaauw, M., and J. A. Christen. 2011. “Flexible Paleoclimate Age-Depth Models Using an Autoregressive Gamma Process.” Bayesian Analysis 6: 457–474. doi: https://doi.org/10.1214/ba/1339616472
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blockley, S. P. E., K. J. Edwards, J. E. Schofield, S. D. F. Pyne-O’Donnell, B. J. L. Jensen, I. P. Matthews, G. T. Cook, K. L. Wallace, and D. Froese. 2015. “First Evidence of Cryptotephra in Palaeoenvironmental Records Associated with Norse Occupation Sites in Greenland.” Quaternary Geochronology 27: 145–157. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quageo.2015.02.023
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Böcher, T. W., K. Holmen, and K. Jakobsen. 1968. The Flora of Greenland. Copenhagen: P. Hasse & Son.
   Google Scholar
• Bruun, D. 1917. “Oversigt Over Nordboruiner I Godthaab- og Frederikshaab-Distrikter.” Meddelelser om Grønland 56: 57–147.
   Google Scholar
• Buckland, P. C., T. Amorosi, L. K. Barlow, A. J. Dugmore, P. A. Mayewski, T. H. McGovern, A. E. J. Ogilvie, J. P. Sadler, and P. Skidmore. 1996. “Bioarchaeological and Climatological Evidence for the Fate of Norse Farmers in Medieval Greenland.” Antiquity 70: 88–96. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00082910
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buckland, P. C., K. J. Edwards, E. Panagiotakopulu, and J. E. Schofield. 2009. “Palaeoecological and Historical Evidence for Manuring and Irrigation at Garðar (Igaliku), Norse Eastern Settlement, Greenland.” The Holocene 19: 105–116. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0959683608096602
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bunting, M. J., M.-J. Gaillard, S. Sugita, R. Middleton, and A. Broström. 2004. “Vegetation Structure and Pollen Source Area.” The Holocene 14: 651–660. doi: https://doi.org/10.1191/0959683604hl744rp
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bunting, M. J., and R. Tipping. 2000. “Sorting Dross from Data: Possible Indicators of Post-Depositional Assemblage Biasing in Archaeological Palynology.” In Human Ecodynamics, edited by G. Bailey, N. Winder, and R. Charles, 63–69. Oxford: Oxbow Books.
   Google Scholar
• Cappelen, J., ed. 2019. Greenland – DMI Historical Climate Data Collection 1784–2018. Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI) Report 19-04. Copenhagen: DMI.
   Google Scholar
• Cappelen, J., B. V. Jørgensen, E. V. Laursen, L. S. Stannius, and R. S. Thomsen. 2001. The Observed Climate of Greenland, 1958–99 – with Climatological Standard Normals, 1961–90. Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI) Technical Report 00-18. Copenhagen: DMI.
   Google Scholar
• Degerbøl, M. 1941. “The Osseous Material from Austmannadal and Tungmeralik: Western Settlement, Greenland.” Meddelelser om Grønland 89: 345–354.
   Google Scholar
• Diamond, J. 2005. Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Survive. London: Penguin Group.
   Google Scholar
• Dimbleby, G. W. 1985. The Palynology of Archaeological Sites. London: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dugmore, A. J., M. J. Church, P. C. Buckland, K. J. Edwards, I. Lawson, T. H. McGovern, E. Panagiotakopulu, I. A. Simpson, P. Skidmore, and G. Sveinbjranardóttir. 2005. “The Norse Landnám on the North Atlantic Islands: An Environmental Impact Assessment.” Polar Record 41: 21–37. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0032247404003985
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dugmore, A. J., C. Keller, and T. H. McGovern. 2007. “Norse Greenland Settlement: Reflections on Climate Change, Trade, and the Contrasting Fates of Human Settlements in the North Atlantic Islands.” Arctic Anthropology 44: 12–36. doi: https://doi.org/10.1353/arc.2011.0038
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards, K. J., E. Erlendsson, and J. E. Schofield. 2011. “Is There a Norse ‘Footprint’ in North Atlantic Pollen Records?” In Viking Settlements and Society: Papers from the Sixteenth Viking Congress, Reykjavík and Reykholt, 16–23 August 2009, edited by S. Sigmundsson, A. Holt, G. Sigurðsson, G. Ólafsson, and O. Vésteinsson, 65–82. Reykjavík: Hið íslenska fornleifafélag and University of Iceland Press.
   Google Scholar
• Edwards, K. J., J. E. Schofield, and D. Mauquoy. 2008. “High Resolution Paleoenvironmental and Chronological Investigations of Norse Landnám at Tasiusaq, Eastern Settlement, Greenland.” Quaternary Research 69: 1–15. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2007.10.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enghoff, I. B. 2003. “Hunting, Fishing and Animal Husbandry at The Farm Beneath The Sand, Western Greenland.” Meddelelser om Grønland, Man & Society 28: 1–104.
   Google Scholar
• Escher, A., and W. S. Watt, eds. 1976. Geology of Greenland. Copenhagen: Geological Survey of Greenland.
   Google Scholar
• Fredskild, B. 1972. “Palynological Evidence for Holocene Climatic Changes in Greenland.” Acta Universitatis Ouluensis A 3: 277–305.
   Google Scholar
• Fredskild, B. 1973. “Studies in the Vegetational History of Greenland.” Meddelelser om Grønland 198: 1–245.
   Google Scholar
• Fredskild, B. 1978. “Palaeobotanical Investigations of Some Peat Deposits of Norse Age at Qagssiarssuk, South Greenland.” Meddelelser om Grønland 204: 1–41.
   Google Scholar
• Fredskild, B. 1983. “The Holocene Vegetational Development of the Godthåbsfjord Area, West Greenland.” Meddelelser om Grønland, Geoscience 10: 1–28.
   Google Scholar
• Fredskild, B. 1988. “Agriculture in a Marginal Area – South Greenland from the Norse Landnam (985 A.D.) to Present (1985 A.D.).” In The Cultural Landscape: Past, Present and Future, edited by H. H. Birks, H. J. B. Birks, P. E. Kaland, and D. Moe, 381–393. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fredskild, B. 1996. “A Phytogeographical Study of the Vascular Plants of West Greenland.” Meddelelser om Grønland, Bioscience 45: 1–157.
   Google Scholar
• Fredskild, B., and L. Humle. 1991. “Plant Remains from the Norse Farm Sandnes in the Western Settlement, Greenland.” Acta Borealia 8: 69–81. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/08003839108580400
   Google Scholar
• Frei, K. M., A. N. Coutu, K. Smiarowski, R. Harrison, C. K. Madsen, J. Arneborg, R. Frei, et al. 2015. “Was It for Walrus? Viking Age Settlement and Medieval Walrus Ivory Trade in Iceland and Greenland.” World Archaeology 47: 439–466. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/00438243.2015.1025912
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gauthier, E., V. Bichet, C. Massa, C. Petit, B. Vannière, and H. Richard. 2010. “Pollen and Non-Pollen Palynomorph Evidence of Medieval Farming Activities in Southwestern Greenland.” Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 19: 427–438. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-010-0251-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Golding, K. A., I. A. Simpson, J. E. Schofield, and K. J. Edwards. 2011. “Norse-Inuit Interaction and Landscape Change in Southern Greenland? A Geochronological, Pedological and Palynological Investigation.” Geoarchaeology 26: 315–345. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/gea.20351
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Golding, K. A., I. A. Simpson, C. A. Wilson, E. C. Lowe, J. E. Schofield, and K. J. Edwards. 2015. “Europeanization of Sub-Arctic Environments: Perspectives from Norse Greenland’s Outer Fjords.” Human Ecology 43: 61–77. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-014-9708-y
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grimm, E. C. 1987. “CONISS: A FORTRAN 77 Program for Stratigraphically Constrained Cluster Analysis by the Method of Incremental Sum of Squares.” Computers and Geoscience 13: 13–35. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/0098-3004(87)90022-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hellman, S., M. J. Bunting, and M.-J. Gaillard. 2009. “Relevant Source Area of Pollen in Patchy Cultural Landscapes and Signals of Anthropogenic Landscape Disturbance in the Pollen Record: A Simulation Approach.” Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 153: 245–258. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.revpalbo.2008.08.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ingstad, H. 1966. Land Under the Pole Star. London: Jonathan Cape.
   Google Scholar
• Iversen, J. 1934. “Moorgeologische Untersuchungen auf Grönland.” Meddelelser fra Dansk Geologisk Forening 8: 341–358.
   Google Scholar
• Iversen, J. 1952–53. “Origin of the Flora of Western Greenland in the Light of Pollen Analysis.” Oikos 4: 85–103. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/3564805
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, G. 1984. A History of the Vikings. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Keller, C. 2010. “Furs, Fish, and Ivory: Medieval Norsemen at the Arctic Fringe.” Journal of the North Atlantic 3: 1–23. doi: https://doi.org/10.3721/037.003.0105
   Google Scholar
• Krogh, K. J. 1967. Viking Greenland. Copenhagen: National Museum.
   Google Scholar
• Ledger, P. M., K. J. Edwards, and J. E. Schofield. 2014. “Vatnahverfi: A Green and Pleasant Land? Palaeoecological Reconstructions of Environmental and Land Use Change.” Journal of the North Atlantic 601: 29–46. doi: https://doi.org/10.3721/037.002.sp605
   Google Scholar
• Ledger, P. M., K. J. Edwards, and J. E. Schofield. 2015. “Taphonomy or Signal Sensitivity in Palaeoecological Investigations of Norse Landnám in Vatnahverfi, Southern Greenland?” Boreas 44: 197–215. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/bor.12089
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madsen, C. K. 2014. “Pastoral Settlement, Farming, and Hierarchy in Norse Vatnahverfi, South Greenland.” PhD, University of Copenhagen.
   Google Scholar
• Massa, C., V. Bichet, E. Gauthier, B. B. Perren, O. Mathieu, C. Petit, F. Monna, J. Giraudeau, R. Losno, and H. Richard. 2012. “A 2500 Year Record of Natural and Anthropogenic Soil Erosion in South Greenland.” Quaternary Science Reviews 32: 119–130. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2011.11.014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mathers, D. 2009. “A Fourteenth-Century Description of Greenland.” Saga-Book 33: 67–94.
   Google Scholar
• McGovern, T. H. 1985. “Contributions to the Palaeoeconomy of Norse Greenland.” Acta Archaeologica 54: 73–122.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGovern, T. H., T. Amorosi, S. Perdikaris, and J. Woollett. 1996. “Vertebrate Zooarchaeology of Sandnes V51: Economic Change at a Chieftain’s Farm in West Greenland.” Arctic Anthropology 33: 94–121.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGovern, T. H., R. Harrison, and K. Smiarowski. 2014. “Sorting Sheep and Goats in Medieval Iceland and Greenland: Local Subsistence, Climate Change, or World System Impacts?” In Human Ecodynamics in the North Atlantic, edited by R. Harrison, and R. A. Maher, 153–176. Lanham: Lexington Books.
   Google Scholar
• McGovern, T. H., and R. H. Jordan. 1982. “Settlement and Land Use in the Inner Fjords of Godthaab District, West Greenland.” Arctic Anthropology 19: 63–79.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meldgaard, M. 1986. “The Greenland Caribou – Zoogeography, Taxonomy, and Population Dynamics.” Meddelelser om Grønland, Bioscience 20: 1–88.
   Google Scholar
• Moore, P. D., J. A. Webb, and M. E. Collinson. 1991. Pollen Analysis. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell Science.
   Google Scholar
• Panagiotakopulu, E., P. Skidmore, and P. Buckland. 2007. “Fossil Insect Evidence for the End of the Western Settlement in Norse Greenland.” Naturwissenschaften 94: 300–306. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00114-006-0199-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patterson, W. A. III, K. J. Edwards, and D. J. Maguire. 1987. “Microscopic Charcoal as a Fossil Indicator of Fire.” Quaternary Science Reviews 6: 3–23. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-3791(87)90012-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raper, D., and M. Bush. 2009. “A Test of Sporormiella Representation as a Predictor of Megaherbivore Presence and Abundance.” Quaternary Research 71: 490–496. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2009.01.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reimer, P. J., E. Bard, A. Bayliss, J. W. Beck, P. G. Blackwell, C. B. Ramsey, et al. 2013. “IntCal13 and Marine13 Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curves 0–50,000 Years Cal BP.” Radiocarbon 55: 1869–1887. doi: https://doi.org/10.2458/azu_js_rc.55.16947
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross, J. M. 1998. “Archaeobotanical Remains from the Hall (XVII).” In Man, Culture and Environment in Ancient Greenland, edited by J. Arneborg, and H. C. Gulløv, 31–36. Danish Polar Centre Publication No. 4. Copenhagen: Danish National Museum & Danish Polar Center.
   Google Scholar
• Roussell, A. 1936. “Sandnes and the Neighbouring Farms.” Meddelelser om Grønland 88: 1–232.
   Google Scholar
• Roussell, A. 1941. “Farms and Churches in the Mediaeval Norse Settlements of Greenland.” Meddelelser om Grønland 89: 1–354.
   Google Scholar
• Rune, F. 2011. Wild Flowers of Greenland. Hillerød: Gyldenlund Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Schofield, J. E., K. J. Edwards, and C. Christensen. 2008. “Environmental Impacts Around the Time of Norse Landnám in the Qorlortoq Valley, Eastern Settlement, Greenland.” Journal of Archaeological Science 35: 1643–1657. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2007.11.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schofield, J. E., K. J. Edwards, E. Erlendsson, and P. M. Ledger. 2013. “Palynology Supports ‘Old Norse’ Introductions to the Flora of Greenland.” Journal of Biogeography 40: 1119–1130. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.12067
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schweingruber, F. H. 1990. Microscopic Wood Anatomy. 3rd ed. Birmensdorf: Eidgenössische Forschungsanstalt WSL.
   Google Scholar
• Seaver, K. A. 2010. The Last Vikings. London: I. B. Tauris.
   Google Scholar
• Star, B., J. H. Barrett, A. T. Gondek, and S. Boessenkool. 2018. “Ancient DNA Reveals the Chronology of Walrus Ivory Trade from Norse Greenland.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 285: 20180978. doi: https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.0978
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stockmarr, J. 1971. “Tablets with Spores Used in Absolute Pollen Analysis.” Pollen et spores 13: 615–621.
   Google Scholar
• Stuiver, M., and P. J. Reimer. 1993. “Extended 14C Data Base and Revised Calib 3.0 14C Age Calibration Program.” Radiocarbon 35: 215–230. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033822200013904
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugita, S. 1994. “Pollen Representation of Vegetation in Quaternary Sediments: Theory and Method in Patchy Vegetation.” Journal of Ecology 82: 881–897. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/2261452
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugita, S., M.-J. Gaillard, and A. Broström. 1999. “Landscape Openness and Pollen Records: A Simulation Approach.” The Holocene 9: 409–421. doi: https://doi.org/10.1191/095968399666429937
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taurisano, A., C. E. Bøggild, and H. G. Karlsen. 2004. “A Century of Climate Variability and Climate Gradients from Coast to Ice Sheet in West Greenland.” Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography 86: 217–224. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0435-3676.2004.00226.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomsen, H. 1948. “The Annual Reports on the Arctic Sea-Ice Issued by the Danish Meteorological Institute.” Journal of Glaciology 1: 140–141. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022143000007887
   Google Scholar
• TiliaIT. 2019. https://www.tiliait.com/. Last Accessed 2 July 2019.
   Google Scholar
• van Geel, B., J. Buurman, O. Brinkkemper, J. Schelvis, A. Aproot, G. van Reenen, and T. Hakbijl. 2003. “Environmental Reconstruction of a Roman Period Settlement Site in Uitgeest (The Netherlands), with Special Reference to Coprophilous Fungi.” Journal of Archaeological Science 30: 873–883. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-4403(02)00265-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vebæk, C. L. 1992. “Vatnahverfi: An Inland District of the Eastern Settlement in Greenland.” Meddelelser om Grønland, Man & Society 17: 1–247.
   Google Scholar
• von Stedingk, H., R. M. Fyfe, and A. Allard. 2008. “Pollen Productivity Estimates from the Forest-Tundra Ecotone in West-Central Sweden: Implications for Vegetation Reconstruction at the Limits of the Boreal Forest.” The Holocene 18: 323–332. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0959683607086769
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weidick, A., and M. Citterio. 2011. “The Ice-Dammed Lake Isvand, West Greenland, Has Lost Its Water.” Journal of Glaciology 57: 186–188. doi: https://doi.org/10.3189/002214311795306600
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar