Climate Change and the Migration of a Pastoralist People c. 3500 cal. Years BP Inferred from Palaeofire and Lipid Biomarker Records in the Montane Western Ghats, India

References

• Adolf, C., S. Wunderle, D. Colombaroli, H. Weber, E. Gobet, O. Heiri, J. F. N. Leeuwen, C. Bigler, S. E. Connor, and M. Gałka. 2018. “The Sedimentary and Remote-Sensing Reflection of Biomass Burning in Europe.” Global Ecology and Biogeography 27: 199–212. doi:10.1111/geb.12682.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andersson, R. A., P. Kuhry, P. Meyers, Y. Zebühr, P. Crill, and M. Mörth. 2011. “Impacts of Paleohydrological Changes on n-Alkane Biomarker Compositions of a Holocene Peat Sequence in the Eastern European Russian Arctic.” Organic Geochemistry 42: 1065–1075. doi:10.1016/j.orggeochem.2011.06.020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anupama, K., S. Prasad, and C. S. Reddy. 2014. “Vegetation, Land Cover and Land Use Changes of the Last 200 Years in the Eastern Ghats (Southern India) Inferred from Pollen Analysis of Sediments from a Rain-Fed Tank and Remote Sensing.” Quaternary International 325: 93–104. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2014.02.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker, A. G., S. A. Bhagwat, and K. J. Willis. 2013. “Do Dung Fungal Spores Make a Good Proxy for Past Distribution of Large Herbivores?” Quaternary Science Reviews 62: 21–31. doi:10.1016/J.QUASCIREV.2012.11.018.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhagwat, S. A., S. Nogué, and K. J. Willis. 2012. “Resilience of an Ancient Tropical Forest Landscape to 7500 Years of Environmental Change.” Biological Conservation 153: 108–117. doi:10.1016/J.BIOCON.2012.05.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blaauw, M., and J. A. Christen. 2011. “Flexible Paleoclimate Age-Depth Models Using an Autoregressive Gamma Process.” Bayesian Analysis 6: 457–474. doi:10.1214/11-BA618.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowman, D. M. J. S., J. Balch, P. Artaxo, W. J. Bond, M. A. Cochrane, C. M. D’Antonio, R. Defries, et al. 2011. “The Human Dimension of Fire Regimes on Earth.” Journal of Biogeography. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02595.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bull, I. D., R. P. Evershed, and P. P. Betancourt. 2001. “An Organic Geochemical Investigation of the Practice of Manuring at a Minoan Site on Pseira Island, Crete.” Geoarchaeology 16: 223–242. doi:10.1002/1520-6548(200102)16:2<223::AID-GEA1002>3.0.CO;2-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bull, I. D., M. J. Lockheart, M. M. Elhmmali, D. J. Roberts, and R. P. Evershed. 2002. “The Origin of Faeces by Means of Biomarker Detection.” Environment International 27: 647–654. doi:10.1016/S0160-4120(01)00124-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bull, I. D., I. A. Simpson, P. F. Bergen, and R. P. Evershed. 1999. “Muck ‘n’ Molecules: Organic Geochemical Methods for Detecting Ancient Manuring.” Antiquity 73: 86–96. doi:10.1017/S0003598X0008786X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bush, R. T., and F. A. McInerney. 2013. “Leaf Wax n-Alkane Distributions in and Across Modern Plants: Implications for Paleoecology and Chemotaxonomy.” Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 117: 161–179. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2013.04.016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caner, L., D. Seen, Y. Gunnell, B. R. Ramesh, and G. Bourgeon. 2007. “Spatial Heterogeneity of Land Cover Response to Climatic Change in the Nilgiri Highlands (Southern India) Since the Last Glacial Maximum.” The Holocene 17: 195–205. doi:10.1177/0959683607075833.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caratini, C., I. Bentaleb, M. Fontugne, M. T. Morzadec-Kerfourn, J. P. Pascal, and C. Tissot. 1994. “A Less Humid Climate Since ca. 3500 yr B.P. from Marine Cores Off Karwar, Western India.” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 109: 371–384. doi:10.1016/0031-0182(94)90186-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caratini, C., M. Fontugne, J. P. Pascal, C. Tissot, and I. Bentaleb. 1991. “A Major Change at ca. 3500 Years BP in the Vegetation of the Western Ghats in North Kanara, Karnataka.” Current Science 61: 669–672.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carcaillet, C., M. Bouvier, B. Fréchette, A. C. Larouche, and P. J. H. Richard. 2001. “Comparison of Pollen-Slide and Sieving Methods in Lacustrine Charcoal Analyses for Local and Regional Fire History.” The Holocene 11: 467–476. doi:10.1191/095968301678302904.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carto, S. L., A. J. Weaver, R. Hetherington, Y. Lam, and E. C. Wiebe. 2009. “Out of Africa and Into an Ice Age: On the Role of Global Climate Change in the Late Pleistocene Migration of Early Modern Humans Out of Africa.” Journal of Human Evolution 56: 139–151. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.09.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandran, M. D. S. 1996. “On the Ecological History of the Western Ghats.” Current Science 73: 146–155. doi:10.2307/24098268.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark, J. S. 1988. “Particle Motion and the Theory of Charcoal Analysis: Source Area, Transport, Deposition, and Sampling.” Quaternary Research 30: 67–80. doi:10.1016/0033-5894(88)90088-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark, P. U., A. S. Dyke, J. D. Shakun, A. E. Carlson, J. Clark, B. Wohlfarth, J. X. Mitrovica, S. W. Hostetler, and A. M. McCabe. 2009. “The Last Glacial Maximum.” Science 325: 710–714. doi:10.1126/science.1172873.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark, J. S., J. Lynch, B. J. Stocks, and J. G. Goldammer. 1998. “Relationships Between Charcoal Particles in Air and Sediments in West-Central Siberia.” Holocene 8: 19–29. doi:10.1191/095968398672501165.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coughlan, M. R. 2015. “Traditional Fire-use, Landscape Transition, and the Legacies of Social Theory Past.” Ambio, doi:10.1007/s13280-015-0643-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cranwell, P. A. 1973. “Chain-Length Distribution of n-Alkanes from Lake Sediments in Relation to Post-Glacial Environmental Change.” Freshwater Biology 3: 259–265. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2427.1973.tb00921.x.
   Google Scholar
• Cranwell, P. A., G. Eglinton, and N. Robinson. 1987. “Lipids of Aquatic Organisms as Potential Contributors to Lacustrine Sediments-II.” Organic Geochemistry 11: 513–527. doi:10.1016/0146-6380(87)90007-6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cugny, C., F. Mazier, and D. Galop. 2010. “Modern and Fossil Non-Pollen Palynomorphs from the Basque Mountains (Western Pyrenees, France): The Use of Coprophilous Fungi to Reconstruct Pastoral Activity.” Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 19: 391–408. doi:10.1007/s00334-010-0242-6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D’Andrea, W. J., Y. Huang, S. C. Fritz, and N. J. Anderson. 2011. “Abrupt Holocene Climate Change as an Important Factor for Human Migration in West Greenland.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108: 9765–9769. doi:10.1073/pnas.1101708108.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Das, A., H. Nagendra, M. Anand, and M. Bunyan. 2015. “Topographic and Bioclimatic Determinants of the Occurrence of Forest and Grassland in Tropical Montane Forest-Grassland Mosaics of the Western Ghats, India.” PLoS One 10: e0130566. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0130566.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Derrien, M., L. Yang, and J. Hur. 2017. “Lipid Biomarkers and Spectroscopic Indices for Identifying Organic Matter Sources in Aquatic Environments: A Review.” Water Research 112: 58–71. doi:10.1016/J.WATRES.2017.01.023.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dixit, Y., D. A. Hodell, and C. A. Petrie. 2014. “Abrupt Weakening of the Summer Monsoon in Northwest India ∼4100yr Ago.” Geology 42: 339–342. doi:10.1130/G35236.1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubois, N., and J. Jacob. 2016. “Molecular Biomarkers of Anthropic Impacts in Natural Archives: A Review.” Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 4: 92. doi:10.3389/fevo.2016.00092.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dutt, S., A. K. Gupta, M. Singh, S. Jaglan, P. Saravanan, P. Balachandiran, and A. Singh. 2019. “Climate Variability and Evolution of the Indus Civilization.” Quaternary International 507: 15–23. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2018.11.012.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eglinton, T. I., and G. Eglinton. 2008. “Molecular Proxies for Paleoclimatology.” Earth and Planetary Science Letters 275: 1–16. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.07.012.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emeneau, M. B. 1997. “Linguistics and Botany in the Nilgiris.” In Blue Mountains Revisited, Cultural Studies on the Nilgiri Hills, edited by P. Hockings, 74–105. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Erdtman, G. 1960. “The Acetolysis Method – A Revised Description.” Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift 54: 516–564.
   Google Scholar
• Fang, J. Q., and G. Liu. 1992. “Relationship Between Climatic Change and the Nomadic Southward Migrations in Eastern Asia During Historical Times.” Climatic Change 22: 151–168. doi:10.1007/BF00142964.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farrera, I., S. P. Harrison, I. C. Prentice, G. Ramstein, J. Guiot, P. J. Bartlein, R. Bonnefille, et al. 1999. “Tropical Climates at the Last Glacial Maximum: A New Synthesis of Terrestrial Palaeoclimate Data. I. Vegetation, Lake-Levels and Geochemistry.” Climate Dynamics 15: 823–856. doi:10.1007/s003820050317.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fægri, K., and J. Iversen. 1989. Textbook of Pollen Analysis. (Revised by K. Fægri, P. E. Kaland, K. Krzywinski). Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Ficken, K., B. Li, D. Swain, and G. Eglinton. 2000. “An n-Alkane Proxy for the Sedimentary Input of Submerged/Floating Freshwater Aquatic Macrophytes.” Organic Geochemistry 31: 745–749. doi:10.1016/S0146-6380(00)00081-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flannigan, M. D., M. A. Krawchuk, W. J. Groot, B. M. Wotton, and L. M. Gowman. 2009. “Implications of Changing Climate for Global Wildland Fire.” International Journal of Wildland Fire. doi:10.1071/WF08187.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Francis, W. 1908. Madras District Gazetteers – The Nilgiris. Madras: Government Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fuller, D. Q. 2013. “31 South Asia: Archaeology.” In The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. doi:10.1002/9781444351071.wbeghm831
   Google Scholar
• Fuller, D. Q., N. Boivin, and R. Korisettar. 2007. “Dating the Neolithic of South India: New Radiometric Evidence for Key Economic, Social and Ritual Transformations.” Antiquity 81: 755–778. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00095715.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gagosian, R. B., and E. T. Peltzer. 1986. “The Importance of Atmospheric Input of Terrestrial Organic Material to Deep Sea Sediments.” Organic Geochemistry 10: 661–669. doi:10.1016/S0146-6380(86)80002-X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geel, B. 2002. Non-Pollen Palynomorphs. Dordrecht: Springer. doi:10.1007/0-306-47668-1_6
   Google Scholar
• Geel, B., V. Gelorini, A. Lyaruu, A. Aptroot, S. Rucina, R. Marchant, J. S. S. Damsté, and D. Verschuren. 2011. “Diversity and Ecology of Tropical African Fungal Spores from a 25,000-Year Palaeoenvironmental Record in Southeastern Kenya.” Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 164: 174–190. doi:10.1016/J.REVPALBO.2011.01.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghosh, D., S. Kumar, M. E. Donselaar, C. Corroto, and A. K. Ghosh. 2021. “Organic Carbon Transport Model of Abandoned River Channels – A Motif for Floodplain Geomorphology Influencing Biogeochemical Swaying of Arsenic.” Science of The Total Environment 762. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144400.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghosh, D., J. Routh, and P. Bhadury. 2017. “Sub-Surface Biogeochemical Characteristics and Its Effect on Arsenic Cycling in the Holocene Gray Sand Aquifers of the Lower Bengal Basin.” Frontiers in Environmental Science 5. doi:10.3389/fenvs.2017.00082.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giguet-Covex, C., J. Pansu, F. Arnaud, P.-J. Rey, C. Griggo, L. Gielly, I. Domaizon, et al. 2014. “Long Livestock Farming History and Human Landscape Shaping Revealed by Lake Sediment DNA.” Nature Communications 5: 3211. doi:10.1038/ncomms4211.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grimalt, J. O., P. Fernandez, J. M. Bayona, and J. Albaiges. 1990. “Assessment of Fecal Sterols and Ketones as Indicators of Urban Sewage Inputs to Coastal Waters.” Environmental Science & Technology 24: 357–363. doi:10.1021/es00073a011.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hockings, P. 1980. Ancient Hindu Refugees: Badaga Social History 1150–1975. The Hague: Mouton Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Hughes, P. D., and P. L. Gibbard. 2015. “A Stratigraphical Basis for the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM).” Quaternary International 383: 174–185. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2014.06.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jardé, E., G. Gruau, and L. Mansuy-Huault. 2007a. “Detection of Manure-Derived Organic Compounds in Rivers Draining Agricultural Areas of Intensive Manure Spreading.” Applied Geochemistry 22: 1814–1824. doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2007.03.037.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jardé, E., G. Gruau, L. Mansuy-Huault, P. Peu, and J. Martinez. 2007b. “Using Sterols to Detect Pig Slurry Contribution to Soil Organic Matter.” Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 178: 169–178. doi:10.1007/s11270-006-9188-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansen, P. G. 2004. “Landscape, Monumental Architecture, and Ritual: A Reconsideration of the South Indian Ashmounds.” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23: 309–330. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2004.05.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jose, S., A. Sreepathy, B. Mohan Kumar, and V. K. Venugopal. 1994. “Structural, Floristic and Edaphic Attributes of the Grassland-Shola Forests of Eravikulam in Peninsular India.” Forest Ecology and Management 65: 279–291. doi:10.1016/0378-1127(94)90176-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kathiravan, P., R. S. Kataria, B. P. Mishra, P. K. Dubey, D. K. Sadana, and B. K. Joshi. 2011. “Population Structure and Phylogeography of Toda Buffalo in Nilgiris Throw Light on Possible Origin of Aboriginal Toda Tribe of South India.” Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics 128: 295–304. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0388.2011.00921.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korisettar, R. 2016. “Out of Africa and Into South Asia: The Evidence from Paleolithic Archaeology.” In A Companion to South Asia in the Past, edited by Gwen Robbins Schug, and Subhash R. Walimbe, 60–71. Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781119055280.ch5
   Google Scholar
• Korisettar, R., P. C. Venkatasubbaiah, and D. Q. Fuller. 2001. “Brahmagiri and Beyond: The Archaeology of the Southern Neolithic.” In Indian Archaeology in Retrospect. Prehistory, vol. I, edited by R. Korisettar, and S. Settar, 151–237. New Delhi: Manohar.
   Google Scholar
• Krawchuk, M. A., and M. A. Moritz. 2011. “Constraints on Global Fire Activity Vary Across a Resource Gradient.” Ecology 92: 121–132. doi:10.1890/09-1843.1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumaran, K. P. N., R. B. Limaye, S. A. Punekar, S. N. Rajaguru, S. V. Joshi, and S. N. Karlekar. 2013. “Vegetation Response to South Asian Monsoon Variations in Konkan, Western India During the Late Quaternary: Evidence from Fluvio-Lacustrine Archives.” Quaternary International 286: 3–18. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.03.010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leeming, R., A. Ball, N. Ashbolt, and P. Nichols. 1996. “Using Faecal Sterols from Humans and Animals to Distinguish Faecal Pollution in Receiving Waters.” Water Research 30: 2893–2900. doi:10.1016/S0043-1354(96)00011-5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leider, A., K. U. Hinrichs, E. Schefuß, and G. J. M. Versteegh. 2013. “Distribution and Stable Isotopes of Plant wax Derived n-Alkanes in Lacustrine, Fluvial and Marine Surface Sediments Along an Eastern Italian Transect and Their Potential to Reconstruct the Hydrological Cycle.” Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 117: 16–32. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2013.04.018.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leys, B. A., J. L. Commerford, and K. K. McLauchlan. 2017. “Reconstructing Grassland Fire History Using Sedimentary Charcoal: Considering Count, Size and Shape.” PLoS One 12: e0176445. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0176445.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linseele, V., H. Riemer, J. Baeten, D. Vos, E. Marinova, and C. Ottoni. 2013. “Species Identification of Archaeological Dung Remains: A Critical Review of Potential Methods.” Environmental Archaeology 18: 5–17. doi:10.1179/1461410313Z.00000000019.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meher-Homji, V. M. 1967. “Phytogeography of the South Indian Hill Stations.” Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 94: 230. doi:10.2307/2483901.
   Google Scholar
• Meyers, P. A. 2003. “Applications of Organic Geochemistry to Paleolimnological Reconstructions: A Summary of Examples from the Laurentian Great Lakes.” Organic Geochemistry 34: 261–289. doi:10.1016/S0146-6380(02)00168-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mondal, N., and R. Sukumar. 2016. “Fires in Seasonally Dry Tropical Forest: Testing the Varying Constraints Hypothesis Across a Regional Rainfall Gradient.” PLoS One 11: e0159691. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0159691.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mooney, S. D., and W. Tinner. 2010. “The Analysis of Charcoal in Peat and Organic Sediments.” Mires and Peat 7.
   Google Scholar
• Morrison, K. D., C. M. Sinopoli, K. Wilcox Black, M. Trivedi, A. Bauer, M. Lycett, S. Haricharan, and J. Bates. in press. “From the Southern Neolithic to the Iron Age: A View from Kadebakele.” Beyond Stones and More Stones, Volume 3, edited by Ravi Korisettar. Bangalore: Mythic Society.
   Google Scholar
• Nakamura, T., T. Oda, A. Tanaka, and K. Horiuchi. 2003. “High Precision 14C Age Estimation of Bottom Sediments of Lake Baikal and Lake Hovsgol by AMS.” Gekkan Chikyu 42: 20–31.
   Google Scholar
• Nash, D., R. Leeming, L. Clemow, M. Hannah, D. Halliwell, and D. Allen. 2005. “Quantitative Determination of Sterols and Other Alcohols in Overland Flow from Grazing Land and Possible Source Materials.” Water Research 39: 2964–2978. doi:10.1016/J.WATRES.2005.04.063.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nichols, J. E., R. K. Booth, S. T. Jackson, E. G. Pendall, and Y. Huang. 2006. “Paleohydrologic Reconstruction Based on n-Alkane Distributions in Ombrotrophic Peat.” Organic Geochemistry 37: 1505–1513. doi:10.1016/J.ORGGEOCHEM.2006.06.020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noble, W. 1976. “Nilgiri Dolmens (South India).” Anthropos 71: 90–128.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pancost, R. D., M. Baas, B. Geel, and J. S. Sinninghe Damsté. 2002. “Biomarkers as Proxies for Plant Inputs to Peats: An Example from a Sub-Boreal Ombrotrophic Bog.” Organic Geochemistry 33: 675–690. doi:10.1016/S0146-6380(02)00048-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pei, Q. 2017. “Migration for Survival Under Natural Disasters: A Reluctant and Passive Choice for Agriculturalists in Historical China.” Science China Earth Sciences 60: 2089–2096. doi:10.1007/s11430-017-9080-6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perrotti, A. G., and E. Asperen. 2019. “Dung Fungi as a Proxy for Megaherbivores: Opportunities and Limitations for Archaeological Applications.” Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 28: 93–104. doi:10.1007/s00334-018-0686-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters, K. E., and J. M. Moldowan. 1993. The Biomarker Guide: Interpreting Molecular Fossils in Petroleum and Ancient Sediments. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Power, M. J., J. Marlon, N. Ortiz, P. J. Bartlein, S. P. Harrison, F. E. Mayle, A. Ballouche, et al. 2008. “Changes in Fire Regimes Since the Last Glacial Maximum: an Assessment Based on a Global Synthesis and Analysis of Charcoal Data.” Climate Dynamics 30: 887–907. doi:10.1007/s00382-007-0334-x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prabhu, C. N., R. Shankar, K. Anupama, M. Taieb, R. Bonnefille, L. Vidal, and S. Prasad. 2004. “A 200-ka Pollen and Oxygen-Isotopic Record from Two Sediment Cores from the Eastern Arabian Sea.” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 214: 309–321. doi:10.1016/J.PALAEO.2004.07.027.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prell, W. L., and J. E. Kutzbach. 1987. “Monsoon Variability Over the Past 150,000 Years.” Journal of Geophysical Research 92: 8411–8425. doi:10.1029/JD092iD07p08411.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prost, K., J. J. Birk, E. Lehndorff, R. Gerlach, and W. Amelung. 2017. “Steroid Biomarkers Revisited – Improved Source Identification of Faecal Remains in Archaeological Soil Material.” PLoS One 12: e0164882. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0164882.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajagopalan, G., R. Sukumar, R. Ramesh, R. K. Pant, and G. Rajagopalan. 1997 “Late Quaternary Vegetational and Climatic Changes from Tropical Peats in Southern India – An Extended Record up to 40,000 Years BP.” Current Science. doi:10.2307/24098146.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramya Bala, P., T. Nakamura, K. Sajeev, and R. Sukumar. 2016. “High-Resolution Age-Depth Chronology from Tropical Montane Minerotrophic Peat in the Sandynallah Valley, Western Ghats, Southern India: Analytical Issues and Implications.” Quaternary Geochronology 34: 12–23. doi:10.1016/J.QUAGEO.2016.03.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reimer, P. J., W. E. N. Austin, E. Bard, A. Bayliss, P. G. Blackwell, C. Bronk Ramsey, M. Butzin, et al. 2020. “The IntCal20 Northern Hemisphere Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curve (0-55 cal kBP).” Radiocarbon 62: 725–757. doi:10.1017/RDC.2020.41.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivers, W. H. R. 1906. The Todas. London: Macmillan and Company.
   Google Scholar
• Rommerskirchen, F., A. Plader, G. Eglinton, Y. Chikaraishi, and J. Rullkötter. 2006. “Chemotaxonomic Significance of Distribution and Stable Carbon Isotopic Composition of Long-Chain Alkanes and Alkan-1-ols in C4 Grass Waxes.” Organic Geochemistry 37: 1303–1332. doi:10.1016/J.ORGGEOCHEM.2005.12.013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell, P., and V. P. Jacob. 1942. “On the Epidemiology of Malaria in the Nilgiris District, Madras Presidency.” Journal of the Malaria Institute of India 4 (3): 349–392.
   Google Scholar
• Saraswat, R., R. Nigam, and T. Correge. 2014. “A Glimpse of the Quaternary Monsoon History from India and Adjoining Seas.” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.11.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schroeter, N., S. Lauterbach, M. Stebich, J. Kalanke, J. Mingram, C. Yildiz, S. Schouten, and G. Gleixner. 2020. “Biomolecular Evidence of Early Human Occupation of a High-Altitude Site in Western Central Asia During the Holocene.” Frontiers in Earth Science 8: 20. doi:10.3389/feart.2020.00020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwark, L., K. Zink, and J. Lechterbeck. 2002. “Reconstruction of Postglacial to Early Holocene Vegetation History in Terrestrial Central Europe Via Cuticular Lipid Biomarkers and Pollen Records from Lake Sediments.” Geology 30: 463. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0463:ROPTEH>2.0.CO;2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma, R., G. R. Umapathy, P. Kumar, S. Ojha, S. Gargari, R. Joshi, S. Chopra, and D. Kanjilal. 2019. “AMS and Upcoming Geochronology Facility at Inter University Accelerator Centre (IUAC), New Delhi, India.” Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms 438: 124–130. doi:10.1016/j.nimb.2018.07.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shillito, L.-M., I. Bull, W. Matthews, M. Almond, and R. Evershed. 2011. Biomolecular and Micromorphological Analysis of Suspected Faecal Deposits at Neolithic Çatalhöyük, Turkey.
   Google Scholar
• Snitker, G. 2018. “Identifying Natural and Anthropogenic Drivers of Prehistoric Fire Regimes Through Simulated Charcoal Records.” Journal of Archaeological Science 95: 1–15. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2018.04.009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevenson, J., and S. Haberle. 2018. Macro Charcoal Analysis: A Modified Technique used by the Department of Archaeology and Natural History. http://palaeoworks.anu.edu.au/paltr05.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Sukumar, R., R. Ramesh, R. K. Pant, and G. Rajagopalan. 1993. “A δ13C Record of Late Quaternary Climate Change from Tropical Peats in Southern India.” Nature 364: 703–706. doi:10.1038/364703a0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sukumar, R., H. S. Suresh, and R. Ramesh. 1995. “Climate Change and its Impact on Tropical Montane Ecosystems in Southern India.” Journal of Biogeography 22: 533–536. doi:10.2307/2845951.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sutra, J.-P., R. Bonnefille, and M. Fontugne. 1997. “Étude Palynologique D’un Nouveau Sondage Dans les Marais de Sandynallah (Massif des Nilgiri, Sud-Ouest de L’Inde.” Géographie Physique et Quaternaire 51: 415. doi:10.7202/033140ar.
   Google Scholar
• Tierney, J. E., P. B. de Menocal, and P. D. Zander. 2017. “A Climatic Context for the Out-of-Africa Migration.” Geology 45: 1023–1026. doi:10.1130/G39457.1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tissot, C., H. Chikhi, and T. S. Nayar. 1994. Pollen of Wet Evergreen Forests of the Western Ghats, India. Institut Français de Pondichéry, 133 p., Publications du département d’écologie, no. 35, Institut Français de Pondichéry.
   Google Scholar
• Vachula, R. S. 2021. “A Meta-Analytical Approach to Understanding the Charcoal Source Area Problem.” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 562: 110111. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2020.110111.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vasanthy, G. 1988. “Pollen Analysis of Late Quaternary Sediments: Evolution of Upland Savanna in Sandynallah (Nilgiris, South India).” Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 55: 175–192. doi:10.1016/0034-6667(88)90084-X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veale, L. 2010. “An Historical Geography of the Nilgiri Cinchona Plantations, 1860–1900.” PhD Thesis, University of Nottingham.
   Google Scholar
• von Lengerke, H. J. 1977. Nilgiris Weather and Climate of a Mountain Area in South India. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Vuorio, V., A. Muchiru, S. Reid, and R. Ogutu. 2014. “How Pastoralism Changes Savanna Vegetation Impact of Old Pastoral Settlements on Plant Diversity and Abundance in South Western Kenya.” Biodiversity and Conservation 23: 3219–3240. doi:10.1007/s10531-014-0777-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker, A. 1997. “The Western Romance with the Toda.” In Blue Mountains Revisited: Cultural Studies of the Nilgiris, edited by Paul Hockings, 106–135. Delhi: Oxford Univ. Press.
   Google Scholar
• White, A. J., L. R. Stevens, V. Lorenzi, S. E. Munoz, C. P. Lipo, and S. Schroeder. 2018. “An Evaluation of Fecal Stanols as Indicators of Population Change at Cahokia, Illinois.” Journal of Archaeological Science 93: 129–134. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2018.03.009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitlock, C., and C. Larsen. 2002. “Charcoal as a Fire Proxy.” In Tracking Environmental Change Using Lake Sediments, 75–97. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. doi:10.1007/0-306-47668-1_5
   Google Scholar
• Wu, W., J. Ruan, S. Ding, L. Zhao, Y. Xu, H. Yang, W. Ding, and Y. Pei. 2014. “Source and Distribution of Glycerol Dialkyl Glycerol Tetraethers Along Lower Yellow River-Estuary-Coast Transect.” Marine Chemistry 158: 17–26. doi:10.1016/j.marchem.2013.11.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zagarell, A. 1997. “The Megalithic Graves of the Nilgiri Hills and the Moyar Ditch.” Blue Mountains Revisited: Cultural Studies on the Nilgiri Hills, edited by Paul Hockings, 23–73.
   Google Scholar
• Zheng, Y., W. Zhou, P. A. Meyers, and S. Xie. 2007. “Lipid Biomarkers in the Zoigê-Hongyuan Peat Deposit: Indicators of Holocene Climate Changes in West China.” Organic Geochemistry 38: 1927–1940. doi:10.1016/J.ORGGEOCHEM.2007.06.01.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar