Following and Avoiding Fear-Inducing News Topics: Fear Intensity, Perceived News Topic Importance, Self-Efficacy, and News Overload

References

• Altheide, D. L. 2017. Creating Fear: News and the Construction of Crisis. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• America’s Top Fears. 2017. Chapman University Survey of American Fears. (n.d.). https://blogs.chapman.edu/wilkinson/2017/10/11/americas-top-fears-2017/.
   Google Scholar
• APA (American Psychological Association). 2016. APA Survey Reveals 2016 Presidential Election Source of Significant Stress for More Than Half of Americans. https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2016/10/presidential-electionstress.aspx.
   Google Scholar
• A.P. News. 2020. “With Captive Audience, Cable News Has Big Ratings in April.” June 18. https://apnews.com/3ebc129bd346050627a546b4522a1835.
   Google Scholar
• Asparouhov, T., and B. Muthén. 2012. “Using Mplus TECH11 and TECH14 to Test the Number of Latent Classes.” Mplus Web Notes 14: 22. http://www.statmodel.com/examples/webnotes/webnote14.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. 1983. “Self-Efficacy Determinants of Anticipated Fears and Calamities.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 45 (2): 464–469.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett, H. C., and R. Kurzban. 2006. “Modularity in Cognition: Framing the Debate.” Psychological Review 113 (3): 628–647.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Case, D. O., J. E. Andrews, J. D. Johnson, and S. L. Allard. 2005. “Avoiding Versus Seeking: The Relationship of Information Seeking to Avoidance, Blunting, Coping, Dissonance, and Related Concepts.” Journal of the Medical Library Association 93 (3): 353–362.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Celeux, G., and G. Soromenho. 1996. “An Entropy Criterion for Assessing the Number of Clusters in a Mixture Model.” Journal of Classification 13 (2): 195–212.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaffee, S. H., and C. R. Berger. 1987. “What Communication Scientists Do.” In Handbook of Communication Science, edited by Charles Berger, Michael Roloff, and David R. Roskos-Ewoldsen, 99–122. Beverly Hills: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Choi, Y. 2004. “Study Examines Daily Public Journalism at Six Newspapers.” Newspaper Research Journal 25 (2): 12–27.
   Google Scholar
• de los Santos, T. M., and R. L. Nabi. 2019. “Emotionally Charged: Exploring the Role of Emotion in Online News Information Seeking and Processing.” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 63 (1): 39–58.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeVreese, C. H., and H. Boomgaarden. 2006. “News, Political Knowledge and Participation: The Differential Effects of News Media Exposure on Political Knowledge and Participation.” Acta Politica 41 (4): 317–341.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dillard, J. P., and J. W. Anderson. 2004. “The Role of Fear in Persuasion.” Psychology & Marketing 21 (11): 909–926.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dillard, J. P., R. Li, E. Meczkowski, C. Yang, and L. Shen. 2017. “Fear Responses to Threat Appeals: Functional form, Methodological Considerations, and Correspondence between Static and Dynamic Data.” Communication Research 44 (7): 997–1018.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edgerly, S. 2015. “Red Media, Blue Media, and Purple Media: News Repertoires in the Colorful Media Landscape.” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 59 (1): 1–21.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edgerly, S., K. Thorson, E. Thorson, E. K. Vraga, and L. Bode. 2017. “Do Parents Still Model News Consumption? Socializing News Use Among Adolescents in a Multi-Device World.” New Media & Society, 1263–1281. doi:10.1177/1461444816688451.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eppler, M. J., and J. Mengis. 2004. “The Concept of Information Overload: A Review of Literature from Organization Science, Accounting, Marketing MIS, and Related Disciplines.” The Information Society 20 (5): 325–344.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferguson, S. L., E. W. G. Moore, and D. M. Hull. 2020. “Finding Latent groups in Observed Data: A Primer on Latent Profile Analysis in Mplus for Applied Researchers.” Journal of Behavioral Development 44 (5): 458–468.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ford, B. Q., M. Tamir, T. T. Brunyé, W. R. Shirer, C. R. Mahoney, and H. A. Taylor. 2010. “Keeping Your Eyes on the Prize: Anger and Visual Attention to Threats and Rewards.” Psychological Science 21 (8): 1098–1105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuchs, C., and A. Diamantopoulos. 2009. “Using Single-Item Measures for Construct Measurement in Management Research: Conceptual Issues and Application Guidelines.” Die Betriebswirtschaft 69 (2): 195–210.
   Google Scholar
• Gardner, D. 2008. The Science of Fear: How the Culture of Fear Manipulates Your Brain. Penguin.
   Google Scholar
• Geers, S. 2020. “News Consumption Across Media Platforms and Content: A Typology of Young News Users.” Public Opinion Quarterly 84 (S1): 332–354.
   Google Scholar
• Gottfried, J., and M. Barthel. 2018, June 5. “Nearly 7 in 10 in U.S. Feel Worn Out from Too Much News.” https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/06/05/almost-seveninten-americans-have-news-fatigue-more-among-republicans/.
   Google Scholar
• Griskevicius, V., N. J. Goldstein, C. R. Mortensen, J. M. Sundie, R. B. Cialdini, and D. T. Kenrick. 2009. “Fear and Loving in Las Vegas: Evolution, Emotion, and Persuasion.” Journal of Marketing Research 46 (3): 384–395.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hase, V., K. Engelke, and K. Kieslich. 2020. “The Things we Fear. Combining Automated and Manual Content Analysis to Uncover Themes, Topics, and Threats in Fear-Related News.” Journalism Studies 21 (10): 1384–1402.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haskins, J. B., M. M. Miller, and J. Quarks. 1984. “Reliability of the News Direction Scale for Analysis of the Good-Bad News Dimension.” Journalism Quarterly 61 (3): 524–528.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hinkin, T. R. 1995. “A Review of Scale Development Practices in the Study of Organizations.” Journal of Management 21 (5): 967–988.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, H. 2016. “Media Use, Environmental Beliefs, Self-Efficacy, and Pro-Environmental Behavior.” Journal of Business Research 69 (6): 2206–2212.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson, S., and S. Jacobs. 1983. “Generalizing About Messages: Suggestions for Design and Analysis of Experiments.” Human Communication Research 9 (2): 169–191.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ji, Q., L. Ha, and U. Sypher. 2014. “The Role of News Media Use and Demographic Characteristics in the Possibility of Information Overload Prediction.” International Journal of Communication 8 (16): 669–714. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/2419.
   Google Scholar
• Kenrick, D. T., and M. N. Shiota. 2008. “Approach and Avoidance Motivation(s): An Evolutionary Perspective.” In Handbook of Approach and Avoidance Motivation, edited by A. J. Elliot, 273–288. Washington, DC: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Knobloch-Westerwick, S. 2014. Choice and Preference in Media Use: Advances in Selective Exposure Theory and Research. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Knobloch-Westerwick, S., C. Mothes, and N. Polavin. 2020. “Confirmation Bias, Ingroup Bias, and Negativity Bias in Selective Exposure to Political Information.” Communication Research 47 (1): 104–124.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ksiazek, T. B., E. C. Malthouse, and J. G. Webster. 2010. “News-Seekers and Avoiders: Exploring Patterns of Total News Consumption Across Media and the Relationship to Civic Participation.” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 54 (4): 551–568.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaGrange, R. L., and K. F. Ferraro. 2017. “The Elderly’s Fear of Crime: A Critical Examination of the Research.” In The Fear of Crime, edited by J. Ditton and S. Farrall, 77–96. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Law, W., A. J. Elliot, and K. Murayama. 2012. “Perceived Competence Moderates the Relation between Performance-Approach and Performance-Avoidance Goals.” Journal of Educational Psychology 104 (3): 806–819.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LeDoux, J. E. 2012. “Evolution of Human Emotion: A View Through Fear.” Progress in Brain Research 195: 431–442.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LeDoux, J. E., and D. S. Pine. 2016. “Using Neuroscience to Help Understand Fear and Anxiety: A Two-System Framework.” American Journal of Psychiatry 173 (11): 1083–1093.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, A. M., and H. I. Chyi. 2014. “Motivational Consumption Model: Exploring the Psychological Structure of News Use.” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 91 (4): 706–724.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, S. K., K. S. Kim, and J. Koh. 2016. “Antecedents of News Consumers’ Perceived Information Overload and News Consumption Pattern in the USA.” International Journal of Contents 12 (3): 1–11.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, A. R., S. M. Son, and K. K. Kim. 2016. “Information and Communication Technology Overload and Social Networking Service Fatigue: A Stress Perspective.” Computers in Human Behavior 55: 51–61.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leventhal, H. 1971. “Fear Appeals and Persuasion: The Differentiation of a Motivational Construct.” American Journal of Public Health 61 (6): 1208–1224.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lovibond, P. 2006. “Fear and Avoidance: An Integrated Expectancy Model.” In Fear and Learning: From Basic Processes to Clinical Implications, edited by M. G. Craske, D. Hermans, and D. Vansteenwegen, 117–132. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
   Google Scholar
• Maslow, A. H. 1963. “The Need to Know and the Fear of Knowing.” The Journal of General Psychology 68 (1): 111–125.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mobbs, D., C. C. Hagan, T. Dalgleish, B. Silston, and C. Prévost. 2015. “The Ecology of Human Fear: Survival Optimization and the Nervous System.” Frontiers in Neuroscience 9 (55). https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2015.00055/full.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Möller, J., R. N. van de Velde, L. Merten, and C. Puschmann. 2019. “Explaining Online News Engagement Based on Browsing Behavior: Creatures of Habit?” Social Science Computer Review 38 (5): 616–632.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muschert, G. W. 2009. “Frame-Changing in the Media Coverage of a School Shooting: The Rise of Columbine as a National Concern.” The Social Science Journal 46 (1): 164–170.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muthén, B., and L. K. Muthén. 2007. “What is a Good Value of Entropy?” Mplus Discussion. http://www.statmodel.com/discussion/messages/13/2562.html?1237580237.
   Google Scholar
• Nellis, A. M., and J. Savage. 2012. “Does Watching the News Affect Fear of Terrorism? The Importance of Media Exposure on Terrorism Fear.” Crime & Delinquency 58 (5): 748–768.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neuman, W. R. 2016. The Digital Difference. Boston: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nordenson, B. 2008. “Overload.” Columbia Journalism Review 47 (4): 30–32.
   Google Scholar
• Norton, A. 2020. “Beware of ‘Media Overload’ During Coronavirus Crisis, Experts Say.” USNews, April 7. https://www.usnews.com/news/health-news/articles/2020-04-07/beware-of-media-overload-during-coronavirus-crisis-experts-say.
   Google Scholar
• Oberski, D. 2016. “Mixture Models: Latent Profile and Latent Class Analysis.” In Modern Statistical Methods for HCI, edited by J. Robertson and M. Kaptein, 275–287. Cham: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Öhman, A. 1986. “Face the Beast and Fear the Face: Animal and Social Fears as Prototypes for Evolutionary Analyses of Emotion.” Psychophysiology 23 (2): 123–145.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palmer, R., and B. Toff. 2020. “What Does it Take to Sustain a News Habit? The Role of Civic Duty Norms and a Connection to a ‘News Community’ Among News Avoiders in the U.K. and Spain.” International Journal of Communication 14: 20. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/12252.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfefferbaum, B., E. Newman, S. D. Nelson, P. Nitiéma, R. L. Pfefferbaum, and A. Rahman. 2014. “Disaster Media Coverage and Psychological Outcomes: Descriptive Findings in the Extant Research.” Current Psychiatry Reports 16 (9): 464.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinker, S. 2018. Enlightenment Now: The Case for Reason, Science, Humanism, and Progress. New York: Penguin.
   Google Scholar
• Reuters Digital News Report. 2019. http://www.digitalnewsreport.org/survey/.
   Google Scholar
• Rogers, R. W., and S. Prentice-Dunn. 1997. “Protection Motivation Theory.” In Handbook of Health Behavior Research 1: Personal and Social Determinants, edited by D. S. Gochman, 113–132. New York: Plenum Press.
   Google Scholar
• Romer, D., K. H. Jamieson, and S. Aday. 2003. “Television News and the Cultivation of Fear of Crime.” Journal of Communication 53 (1): 88–104.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rossiter, J. R. 2002. “The C-OAR-SE Procedure for Scale Development in Marketing.” International Journal of Research in Marketing 19 (4): 305–335.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savolainen, R. 2007. “Filtering and Withdrawing: Strategies for Coping with Information Overload in Everyday Contexts.” Journal of Information Science 33 (5): 611–621.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schrøder, K. C. 2015. “News Media Old and New: Fluctuating Audiences, News Repertoires, and Locations of Consumption.” Journalism Studies 16 (1): 60–78.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schudson, M. 2011. The Sociology of News. New York: WW Norton & Company.
   Google Scholar
• Shehata, A. 2016. “News Habits Among Adolescents: The Influence of Family Communication on Adolescents’ News Media Use—Evidence from a Three-Wave Panel Study.” Mass Communication and Society 19 (6): 758–781.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shoemaker, P. J. 1996. “Hardwired for News: Using Biological and Cultural Evolution to Explain the Surveillance Function.” Journal of Communication 46 (3): 32–47.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skovsgaard, M., and K. Andersen. 2020. “Conceptualizing News Avoidance: Towards a Shared Understanding of Different Causes and Potential Solutions.” Journalism Studies 21 (4): 459–476.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song, H., J. Jung, and Y. Kim. 2017. “Perceived News Overload and its Cognitive and Attitudinal Consequences for News Usage in South Korea.” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 94 (4): 1172–1190.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soroka, S., P. Fournier, L. Nir, and J. Hibbing. 2019. “Psychophysiology in the Study of Political Communication: An Expository Study of Individual-Level Variation in Negativity Biases.” Political Communication 36 (2): 288–302.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strömbäck, J. 2017. “News Seekers, News Avoiders, and the Mobilizing Effects of Election Campaigns: Comparing Election Campaigns for the National and the European Parliaments.” International Journal of Communication 11: 237–258.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strömbäck, J., K. Falasca, and S. Kruikemeier. 2018. “The Mix of Media Use Matters: Investigating the Effects of Individual News Repertoires on Offline and Online Political Participation.” Political Communication 35 (3): 413–432.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swart, J., C. Peters, and M. Broersma. 2017. “Navigating Cross-Media News Use: Media Repertoires and the Value of News in Everyday Life.” Journalism Studies 18 (11): 1343–1362.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sweeny, K., D. Melnyk, W. Miller, and J. A. Shepperd. 2010. “Information Avoidance: Who, What, When, and Why.” Review of General Psychology 14 (4): 340–353.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tein, J. Y., S. Coxe, and H. Cham. 2013. “Statistical Power to Detect the Correct Number of Classes in Latent Profile Analysis.” Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal 20 (4): 640–657.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tooby, J., and L. Cosmides. 2005. “Conceptual Foundations of Evolutionary Psychology.” In The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology, edited by D. M. Buss, 5–67. New York: Willey.
   Google Scholar
• Trussler, M., and S. Soroka. 2014. “Consumer Demand for Cynical and Negative News Frames.” The International Journal of Press/Politics 19 (3): 360–379.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagner, M. C., and P. J. Boczkowski. 2019. “Angry, Frustrated, and Overwhelmed: The Emotional Experience of Consuming News About President Trump.” Journalism. doi:10.1177/1464884919878545.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte, K. 1992. “Putting the Fear Back Into Fear Appeals: The Extended Parallel Process Model.” Communication Monographs 59 (4): 329–349.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte, K. 1994. “Fear Control and Danger Control: A Test of the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM).” Communication Monographs 61 (2): 113–134.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, C., J. P. Dillard, and R. Li. 2018. “Understanding Fear of Zika: Personal, Interpersonal, and Media Influences.” Risk Analysis 38 (12): 2535–2545.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, J. R. 2003. “The Role of Fear in Agenda Setting by Television News.” American Behavioral Scientist 46 (12): 1673–1695.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar