Images of Transgressions: Visuals as Reconstructed Evidence in Digital Investigative Journalism

References

• Adami, E. 2016. “How Do You Watch a Revolution? Notes From the 21st Century.” Journal of Visual Culture 15 (1): 69–84.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allan, S. 2013. Citizen Witnessing: Revisioning Journalism in Times of Crisis. Oxford: Polity Press.
   Google Scholar
• Allan, S. 2014. “Witnessing in Crisis: Photo-Reportage of Terror Attacks in Boston and London.” Media, War & Conflict 7 (2): 133–151.
   Google Scholar
• Allan, S., and C. Peters. 2015. “Visual Truths of Citizen Reportage: Four Research Problematics.” Information, Communication & Society 18 (11): 1348–1361.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andén-Papadopoulos, K., and M. Pantti. 2014. Amateur Images and Global News. Bristol: Intellect Books.
   Google Scholar
• Ashuri, T., and A. Pinchevski. 2009. “Witnessing as a Field.” In Media Witnessing: Testimony in the Age of Mass Communication, edited by P. Frosh, and A. Pinchevski, 133–157. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Bal, M. 2003. “Visual Essentialism and the Object of Visual Culture.” Journal of Visual Culture 2 (1): 5–32.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barthes, R. 1977. Rhetoric of the Image. Image Music Text. New York: Hill and Wang.
   Google Scholar
• Berger, P. L., and T. Luckmann. 1966. The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge. New York: Anchor Books.
   Google Scholar
• Bock, M. A. 2012. “Newspaper Journalism and Video: Motion, Sound, and New Narratives.” New Media & Society 14 (4): 600–616.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bock, M. A., and D. A. Schneider. 2017. “The Voice of Lived Experience: Mobile Video Narratives in the Courtroom.” Information, Communication & Society 20 (3): 335–350.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandtzaeg, P. B., M. Lüders, J. Spangenberg. 2016. “Emerging Journalistic Verification Practices Concerning Social Media.” Journalism Practice 10 (3): 323–342.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bromley, M. 2005. “Subterfuge as Public Service: Investigative Journalism as Idealized Journalism.” In Journalism: Critical Issues, edited by S. Allan, 313–327. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Browne, M., and C. Engelbrecht. 2020. “The David McAtee Shooting: Did Aggressive Policing Lead to a Fatal Outcome?” The New York Times.
   Google Scholar
• Browne, M., A. Singhvi, and N. Reneau. 2020a. “How the Police Killed Breonna Taylor.” The New York Times.
   Google Scholar
• Browne, M., and A. Tiefenthäler. 2020. “Ahmaud Arbery’s Final Minutes: What Videos and 911 Calls Show.” The New York Times.
   Google Scholar
• Browne, M., H. Willis, and E. Hill. 2020b. “How The Times Makes Visual Investigations.” YouTube.
   Google Scholar
• Browne, M., and M. Xiao. 2020. “The Killing of Rayshard Brooks: How a 41-Minute Police Encounter Suddenly Turned Fatal.” The New York Times.
   Google Scholar
• Canella, G. 2021. “Journalistic Power: Constructing the “Truth” and the Economics of Objectivity.” Journalism Practice, 1–17. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2021.1914708.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlson, M. 2017. Journalistic Authority: Legitimating News in the Digital Era. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Carlson, M. 2020. “Journalistic Epistemology and Digital News Circulation: Infrastructure, Circulation Practices, and Epistemic Contests.” New Media & Society 22 (2): 230–246.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chouliaraki, L. 2015. “Digital Witnessing in War Journalism: The Case of Post-Arab Spring Conflicts.” Popular Communication 13 (2): 105–119.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christmann, G. B. 2008. “The Power of Photographs of Buildings in the Dresden Urban Discourse. Towards a Visual Discourse Analysis.” Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research 9 (3). doi:https://doi.org/10.17169/fqs-9.3.1163.
   Google Scholar
• Cooper, S., E. Hill, and W. Hurst. 2020. “I Am On Your Side: How the Police Gave Armed Groups a Pass in 2020.” The New York Times.
   Google Scholar
• Cubitt, S. 2002. “Visual and Audiovisual: From Image to Moving Image.” Journal of VCculture 1 (3): 359–368.
   Google Scholar
• De Burgh, H., and P. Lashmar. 2021. Investigative Journalism. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Dubberley, S., A. Koenig, and D. Murray. 2020. Digital Witness: Using Open Source Information for Human Rights Investigation, Documentation, and Accountability. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dufour, D., and C. Delage. 2015. Images of Conviction: The Construction of Visual Evidence. Paris: Le Bal.
   Google Scholar
• Ekström, M. 2002. “Epistemologies of TV Journalism: A Theoretical Framework.” Journalism 3 (3): 259–282.
   Google Scholar
• Ekström, M., and O. Westlund. 2019a. “The Dislocation of News Journalism: A Conceptual Framework for the Study of Epistemologies of Digital Journalism.” Media and Communication 7 (1): 259–270.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekström, M., and O. Westlund. 2019b. “Epistemology and Journalism.” In Oxford Encyclopedia of Journalism Studies, edited by Henrik Örnebring. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ettema, J. S., and T. L. Glasser. 1985. “On the Epistemology of Investigative Journalism.” Communication 8 (2): 183–206.
   Google Scholar
• Ettema, J. S., and T. L. Glasser. 1998. Custodians of Conscience: Investigative Journalism and Public Virtue. New York: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fiske, J. 1996. Media Matters: Race & Gender in US Politics. Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press.
   Google Scholar
• Foucault, M. 1977. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Pantheon.
   Google Scholar
• Foucault, M. 2002. Archaeology of Knowledge. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Fuller, M., and E. Weizman. 2021. Investigative Aesthetics: Conflicts and Commons in the Politics of Truth. London: Verso.
   Google Scholar
• Gates, K. 2013. “The Cultural Labor of Surveillance: Video Forensics, Computational Objectivity, and the Production of Visual Evidence.” Social Semiotics 23 (2): 242–260.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gates, K. 2020. “Media Evidence and Forensic Journalism.” Surveillance & Society 18 (3): 403–408.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gieryn, T. F. 1999. Cultural Boundaries of Science: Credibility on the Line. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Godler, Y., and Z. Reich. 2017. “Journalistic Evidence: Cross-Verification as a Constituent of Mediated Knowledge.” Journalism 18 (5): 558–574.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodwin, C. 1994. “Professional Vision.” American Anthropologist 96 (3): 606–633.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwood, K., and R. J. Thomas. 2015. “Locating the Journalism in Citizen Photojournalism: The Use and Content of Citizen-Generated Imagery.” Digital Journalism 3 (4): 615–633.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gynnild, A. 2014. “The Robot Eye Witness: Extending Visual Journalism Through Drone Surveillance.” Digital Journalism 2 (3): 334–343.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hahn, O., and F. Stalph. 2018. Digital Investigative Journalism. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Higgins, E. 2021. We Are Bellingcat. London: Bloomsbury.
   Google Scholar
• Hill, E., A. Tiefenthäler, and M. Browne. 2020a. “Videos Show How Federal Officers Escalated Violence in Portland.” The New York Times.
   Google Scholar
• Hill, E., C. Triebert, and H. Willis. 2020b. “How George Floyd Was Killed in Police Custody.” The New York Times.
   Google Scholar
• Ibrahim, Y. 2014. “Social Media and the Mumbai Terror Attack.” In Citizen Journalism: Global Perspectives, edited by E. Thorsen, and S. Allan, 15–26. New York: Peter Lang.
   Google Scholar
• Jolkovski, A. 2020. “NY Times’ Pioneering Visual Investigations: Behind the Scenes.” WAN-IFRA.
   Google Scholar
• Keller, R. 2011. “The Sociology of Knowledge Approach to Discourse (SKAD).” Human Studies 34 (1): 43.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keller, R. 2012. “Entering Discourses: A New Agenda for Qualitative Research and the Sociology of Knowledge.” Qualitative Sociology Review 8 (2): 23–56.
   Google Scholar
• Keller, R., A.-K. Hornidge, and W. J. Schünemann. 2018. The Sociology of Knowledge Approach to Discourse: Investigating the Politics of Knowledge and Meaning-Making. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Koettl, C., and D. Botti. 2020. “How an Oregon Wildfire Became One of the Most Destructive.” The New York Times.
   Google Scholar
• Koettl, C., N. Tabrizy, and M. Xiao. 2020. “How the Philadelphia Police Tear-Gassed a Group of Trapped Protesters.” The New York Times.
   Google Scholar
• Latour, B. 1986. “Visualization and Cognition.” Knowledge and Society 6 (6): 1–40.
   Google Scholar
• Latour, B., and S. Woolgar. 1986. Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Leonhardt, D., J. Rudoren, and J. Galinsky. 2017. Journalism That Stands Apart. https://www.nytimes.com/projects/2020-report/index.html.
   Google Scholar
• Levin, T. Y. 2002. “Rhetoric of the Temporal Index: Surveillant Narration and the Cinema of “Real Time”.” In Rhetorics of Surveillance from Bentham to Big Brother, edited by Thomas Y. Levin, Ursula Frohne, and Peter Weibel, 578–593. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lewis, S. C., and O. Westlund. 2015. “Big Data and Journalism: Epistemology, Expertise, Economics, and Ethics.” Digital Journalism 3 (3): 447–466.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mast, J., and S. Hanegreefs. 2015. “When News Media Turn to Citizen-Generated Images of War: Transparency and Graphicness in the Visual Coverage of the Syrian Conflict.” Digital Journalism 3 (4): 594–614.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mnookin, J. L. 1998. “The Image of Truth: Photographic Evidence and the Power of Analogy.” Yale JL & Human 10: 1.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mortensen, M. 2014. Journalism and Eyewitness Images: Digital Media, Participation, and Conflict. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Müller, N. C., and J. Wiik. 2021. “From Gatekeeper to Gate-Opener: Open-Source Spaces in Investigative Journalism.” Journalism Practice, 1–20.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newton, J. 2001. The Burden of Visual Truth: The Role of Photojournalism in Mediating Reality. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Nichols, B. 1995. Blurred Boundaries: Questions of Meaning in Contemporary Culture. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nichols, B. 2016. Speaking Truths With Film: Evidence, Ethics, Politics in Documentary. Berkeley: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Pantti, M. 2020. “Journalism and Witnessing.” In The Handbook of Journalism Studies, edited by K. Wahl-Jorgensen, and T. Hanitzsch, 151–164. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Parasie, S. 2015. “Data-Driven Revelation? Epistemological Tensions in Investigative Journalism in the Age of “Big Data”.” Digital Journalism 3 (3): 364–380.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, R. E. 1940. “News as a Form of Knowledge: A Chapter in the Sociology of Knowledge.” American Journal of Sociology 45 (5): 669–686.
   Google Scholar
• Phillips, D. 2009. “Actuality and Affect in Documentary Photography.” In Using Visual Evidence, edited by R. Howells, and R. Matson, 55–77. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Protess, D. L., F. L. Cook, and J. Doppelt. 1991. The Journalism of Outrage: Investigative Reporting and Agenda Building in America. New York: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Robinson, S. 2009. “If You Had Been With Us: Mainstream Press and Citizen Journalists Jockey for Authority Over the Collective Memory of Hurricane Katrina.” New Media & Society 11 (5): 795–814.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rose, G. 2016. Visual Methodologies: An Introduction to Researching With Visual Materials. London: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Schmid, A. 2012. “Bridging the Gap: Image, Discourse, and Beyond-Towards a Critical Theory of Visual Representation.” Qualitative Sociology Review 8: 2.
   Google Scholar
• Schwalbe, C. B., B. W. Silcock, and E. Candello. 2015. “Gatecheckers at the Visual News Stream: A New Model for Classic Gatekeeping Theory.” Journalism Practice 9 (4): 465–483.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz, L.-G. 2009. Mechanical Witness: A History of Motion Picture Evidence in US Courts. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sekula, A. 1986. “The Body and the Archive.” October 39: 3–64.
   Google Scholar
• Silverstone, R. 2004. “Regulation, Media Literacy and Media Civics.” Media, Culture & Society 26 (3): 440–449.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sommer, V. 2012. “The Online Discourse on the Demjanjuk Trial: New Memory Practices on the World Wide Web?” Journal for Communication Studies 5: 10.
   Google Scholar
• Stückler, A. 2018. “Legislation and Discourse: Research on the Making of Law by Means of Discourse Analysis.” In The Sociology of Knowledge Approach to Discourse: Investigating the Politics of Knowledge and Meaning-Making, edited by R. Keller, A.-K. Hornidge, and W. J. Schünemann, 112–132. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Sturken, M., and L. Cartwright. 2017. Practices of Looking: An Introduction to Visual Culture. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tagg, J. 1999. “Evidence, Truth and Order: A Means of Surveillance.” In Visual Culture: The Reader, edited by S. Hall, and J. Evans, 244–273. London: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Tiefenthäler, A., C. Triebert, and W. Hurst. 2020. “Ukrainian Flight 752: How a Plane Came Down in 7 Minutes.” The New York Times.
   Google Scholar
• Traue, B., M. Blanc, and C. Cambre. 2019. “Visibilities and Visual Discourses: Rethinking the Social with The Image.” Qualitative Inquiry 25 (4): 327–337.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Usher, N. 2020. “News Cartography and Epistemic Authority in the Era of Big Data: Journalists as Map-Makers, Map-Users, and Map-Subjects.” New Media & Society 22 (2): 247–263.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wahl-Jorgensen, K. 2015. “Resisting Epistemologies of User-Generated Content? Cooptation, Segregation and the Boundaries of Journalism.” In Boundaries of Journalism: Professionalism, Practices and Participation, edited by M. Carlson, and S. C. Lewis, 169–185. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Wardle, C. 2014. “Verifying User-Generated Content.” In Verification Handbook: A Definitive Guide to Verifying Digital Content for Emergency Coverage, edited by C. Silverman, 24–33. Maastricht: European Journalism Centre.
   Google Scholar
• Weizman, E. 2017. Forensic Architecture: Violence at the Threshold of Detectability. New York: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Williams, A., K. Wahl-Jorgensen, and C. Wardle. 2011. “More Real and Less Packaged: Audience Discourse on Amateur News Content and Its Effects On Journalism Practice.” In Amateur Images and Global News, edited by K. Andén-Papadopoulos, and M. Pantti, 195–209. Bristol: Intellect Books.
   Google Scholar
• Willis, H., C. Koettl, and N. Tabrizy. 2020. “How Did Iran’s Qassim Suleimani Wield Power? We Tracked the Quds Force Playbook.” The New York Times.
   Google Scholar
• Wu, A. X. 2012. “Hail the Independent Thinker: The Emergence of Public Debate Culture on the Chinese Internet.” International Journal of Communication 6: 2220–2244.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xiao, M., H. Willis, and C. Koettl. 2020. “Wearing a Mask? It May Come From China’s Controversial Labor Program.” The New York Times.
   Google Scholar
• Zelizer, B. 2005. “Journalism Through the Camera’s Eye.” In Journalism: Critical Issues, edited by S. Allan, 167–176. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Zelizer, B. 2007. “On “Having Been There”:“Eyewitnessing” as a Journalistic Key Word.” Critical Studies in Media Communication 24 (5): 408–428.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar