#DefendPressFreedom: Paradigm Repair, Role Perceptions and Filipino Journalists’ Counterstrategies to Anti-Media Populism and Delegitimizing Threats

References

• Balod, H. S. S., and M. Hameleers. 2019. “Fighting for Truth? The Role Perceptions of Filipino Journalists in an Era of Mis- and Disinformation.” Journalism, 1–18. doi:10.1177/1464884919865109.
   Google Scholar
• Beiler, M., and J. Kiesler. 2018. “Lügenpresse! Lying Press! Is the Press Lying?” In Trust in Media and Journalism: Empirical Perspectives on Ethics, Norms, Impacts and Populism in Europe, edited by K. Otto, and A. Köhler, 155–179. Wiesbaden: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-658-20765-6_9
   Google Scholar
• Beiser, E. 2020, October 28. Getting Away With Murder. Committee to Protect Journalists. https://cpj.org/reports/2020/10/global-impunity-index-journalist-murders/.
   Google Scholar
• Berkowitz, D. 2000. “Doing Double Duty: Paradigm Repair and the Princess Diana What-a-Story.” Journalism 1 (2): 125–143. doi:10.1177/146488490000100203.
   Google Scholar
• Bhat, P., and K. Chadha. 2020. “Anti-Media Populism: Expressions of Media Distrust by Right-Wing Media in India.” Journal of International and Intercultural Communication 13 (2): 166–182. doi:10.1080/17513057.2020.1739320.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borden, S. L., and C. Tew. 2007. “The Role of Journalist and the Performance of Journalism: Ethical Lessons from “Fake” News (Seriously).” Journal of Mass Media Ethics 22 (4): 300–314. doi:10.1080/08900520701583586.
   Google Scholar
• Bryman, A. 2012. Social Research Methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bulut, E., and E. Yörük. 2017. “Digital Populism: Trolls and Political Polarization of Twitter in Turkey.” International Journal of Communication 11 (25): 4093–4117. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/6702/2158.
   Google Scholar
• Cecil, M. 2002. “Bad Apples: Paradigm Overhaul and the CNN/Time “Tailwind” Story.” Journal of Communication Inquiry 26 (1): 46–58. doi:10.1177/019685990202600104.
   Google Scholar
• Chua, Y. 2020. Philippines. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. https://www.digitalnewsreport.org/survey/2020/philippines-2020/.
   Google Scholar
• Coronel, S. 2020. “Press Freedom in the Philippines.” In Press Freedom in Contemporary Asia, edited by T. Burrett, and J. Kingston, 214–229. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780429505690
   Google Scholar
• Cottle, S., R. Sambrook, and N. Mosdell. 2016. Reporting Dangerously: Journalist Killings, Intimidation and Security. Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-1-137-40670-5
   Google Scholar
• Egelhofer, J. L., L. Aaldering, and S. Lecheler. 2021. “Delegitimizing the Media? Analyzing Politicians’ Media Criticism on Social Media.” Journal of Language and Politics 20 (5): 653–675. doi:10.1075/jlp.20081.ege.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Egelhofer, J. L., and S. Lecheler. 2019. “Fake News as a Two-Dimensional Phenomenon: A Framework and Research Agenda.” Annals of the International Communication Association 43 (2): 97–116. doi:10.1080/23808985.2019.1602782.
   Google Scholar
• Farhall, K., A. Carson, S. Wright, A. Gibbons, and W. Lukamto. 2019. “Political Elites’ Use of Fake News Discourse Across Communications Platforms.” International Journal of Communication 13 (23): 4353–4375. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/10677.
   Google Scholar
• Fawzi, N. 2019. “Untrustworthy News and the Media as Enemy of the People?: How a Populist Worldview Shapes Recipients’ Attitudes Toward the Media.” The International Journal of Press/Politics 24 (2): 146–164. doi:10.1177/1940161218811981.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fawzi, N. 2020. “Right-Wing Populist Media Criticism.” In Perspectives on Populism and the Media: Avenues for Research, edited by B. Krämer, and C. Holtz-Bacha, 39–56. Nomos. doi:10.5771/9783845297392
   Google Scholar
• Freedom House. 2018. Attacks on the Record. https://freedomhouse.org/report/special-report/2018/attacks-record.
   Google Scholar
• Gelfert, A. 2018. “Fake News: A Definition.” Informal Logic 38 (1): 84–117. doi:10.22329/il.v38i1.5068.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glaser, B. G., and A. L. Strauss. 1967. The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. Chicago: Aldine Pub. Co.
   Google Scholar
• Hameleers, M. 2020. “My Reality is More Truthful Than Yours: Radical Right-Wing Politicians’ and Citizens’ Construction of “Fake” and “Truthfulness” on Social Media – Evidence from the United States and The Netherlands.” International Journal of Communication 14 (18): 1135–1152. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/12463.
   Google Scholar
• Hameleers, M., A. Brosius, F. Marquart, A. C. Goldberg, E. van Elsas, and C. H. de Vreese. 2021. “Mistake or Manipulation? Conceptualizing Perceived Mis- and Disinformation Among News Consumers in 10 European Countries.” Communication Research, 1–23. doi:10.1177/0093650221997719.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanitzsch, T. 2011. “Populist Disseminators, Detached Watchdogs, Critical Change Agents and Opportunist Facilitators: Professional Milieus, the Journalistic Field and Autonomy in 18 Countries.” International Communication Gazette 73 (6): 477–494. doi:10.1177/1748048511412279.
   Google Scholar
• Hellmueller, L., and C. Mellado. 2015. “Professional Roles and News Construction: A Media Sociology Conceptualization of Journalists’ Role Conception and Performance.” Communication & Society 28 (3): 1–11. doi:10.15581/003.28.3.1-11.
   Google Scholar
• Horbyk, R., I. Löfgren, Y. Prymachenko, and C. Soriano. 2021. “Fake News as Meta-Mimesis: Imitative Genres and Storytelling in the Philippines, Brazil, Russia and Ukraine.” The Journal of the Aesthetics of Kitsch, Camp and Mass Culture 5 (1): 30–54. http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:aalto-2021112410434.
   Google Scholar
• Hughes, S., C. Mellado, J. Arroyave, J. L. Benitez, A. de Beer, M. Garcés, K. Lang, and M. Márquez-Ramírez. 2017. “Expanding Influences Research to Insecure Democracies.” Journalism Studies 18 (5): 645–665. doi:10.1080/1461670X.2016.1266278.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Criminal Court. 2021, September 15. Situation in the Philippines: ICC Pre-Trial Chamber I Authorises the Opening of an Investigation. https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=PR1610.
   Google Scholar
• Jagers, J., and S. Walgrave. 2007. “Populism as Political Communication Style: An Empirical Study of Political Parties’ Discourse in Belgium.” European Journal of Political Research 46 (3): 319–345. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6765.2006.00690.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jamil, S., and P. Sohal. 2021. “Reporting Under Fear and Threats: The Deadly Cost of Being a Journalist in Pakistan and India.” Journal of Russian Media and Journalism Studies 1 (2): 5–33. http://worldofmedia.ru/volumes/2021/2021_Issue_2/.
   Google Scholar
• Koliska, M., and K. Assmann. 2019. “Lügenpresse: The Lying Press and German Journalists’ Responses to a Stigma.” Journalism, 1–18. doi:10.1177/1464884919894088.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kovach, B., and T. Rosenstiel. 2014. The Elements of Journalism: What Newspeople Should Know and the Public Should Expect. New York: Three Rivers Press.
   Google Scholar
• Krämer, B. 2018. “Populism, Media, and the Form of Society.” Communication Theory 28 (4): 444–465. doi:10.1093/ct/qty017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krämer, B., and K. Langmann. 2020. “Professionalism as a Response to Right-Wing Populism? An Analysis of a Metajournalistic Discourse.” International Journal of Communication 14 (23): 5643–5662. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/14146.
   Google Scholar
• Lawrence, R. G., and Y. E. Moon. 2021. “We Aren’t Fake News: The Information Politics of the 2018 #FreePress Editorial Campaign.” Journalism Studies 22 (2): 155–173. doi:10.1080/1461670X.2020.1831399.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Márquez-Ramírez, M., C. Mellado, M. L. Humanes, A. Amado, D. Beck, S. Davydov, J. Mick, et al. 2020. “Detached or Interventionist? Comparing the Performance of Watchdog Journalism in Transitional, Advanced and Non-Democratic Countries.” The International Journal of Press/Politics 25 (1): 53–75. doi:10.1177/1940161219872155.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazzaro, K. 2021. “Anti-Media Discourse and Violence Against Journalists: Evidence From Chávez’s Venezuela.” The International Journal of Press/Politics, 1–24. doi:10.1177/19401612211047198.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mudde, C. 2004. “The Populist Zeitgeist.” Government and Opposition 39 (4): 541–563. doi:10.1111/j.1477-7053.2004.00135.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mudde, C., and C. R. Kaltwasser. 2012. “Populism and (Liberal) Democracy: A Framework for Analysis.” In Populism in Europe and the Americas: Threat or Corrective for Democracy?, edited by C. Mudde, and C. R. Kaltwasser, 1–26. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139152365.002
   Google Scholar
• Nobel Peace Prize. 2021, October 8. The Nobel Peace Prize 2021. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2021/press-release/.
   Google Scholar
• Ong, J. C., and J. V. A. Cabañes. 2018. “Architects of Networked Disinformation: Behind the Scenes of Troll Accounts and Fake News Production in the Philippines.” University of Massachusetts Amherst Communication Department Faculty Publication Series 74: 1–74. doi:10.7275/2cq4-5396.
   Google Scholar
• Panievsky, A. 2021. “The Strategic Bias: How Journalists Respond to Antimedia Populism.” The International Journal of Press/Politics, 1–19. doi:10.1177/19401612211022656.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Posetti, J., S. Nabeelah, D. Maynard, K. Bontcheva, and N. Aboulez. 2021. The Chilling: Global Trends in Online Violence Against Women Journalists. UNESCO. https://en.unesco.org/publications/thechilling.
   Google Scholar
• RSF. n.d. Philippines. Accessed 26 March 2022. https://rsf.org/en/philippines.
   Google Scholar
• Shoemaker, P., and S. D. Reese. 2014. Mediating the Message in the 21st Century: A Media Sociology Perspective. New York: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, G. R. 2010. “Politicians and the News Media: How Elite Attacks Influence Perceptions of Media Bias.” The International Journal of Press/Politics 15 (3): 319–343. doi:10.1177/1940161210367430.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanyer, J., S. Salgado, G. Bobba, G. Hajzer, D. N. Hopmann, N. Hubé, N. Merkovity, et al. 2019. “Journalists’ Perceptions of Populism and the Media: A Cross-National Study Based on Semi-Structured Interviews.” In Communicating Populism: Comparing Actor Perceptions, Media Coverage, and Effects on Citizens in Europe, edited by C. Reinemann, J. Stanyer, T. Aalberg, F. Esser, and C. H. de Vreese, 235–252. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780429402067
   Google Scholar
• Tandoc, E. C. J. 2016. “Journalists in the Philippines.” Worlds of Journalism Study. https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/30119/1/Country_report_Philippines.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Tandoc, E. C. J., K. K. Sagun, and K. P. Alvarez. 2021. “The Digitization of Harassment: Women Journalists’ Experiences with Online Harassment in the Philippines.” Journalism Practice, 1–16. doi:10.1080/17512786.2021.1981774.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tapsell, R. 2021. “Divide and Rule: Populist Crackdowns and Media Elites in the Philippines.” Journalism, 1–16. doi:10.1177/1464884921989466.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson, M. R. 2021. “Duterte’s Violent Populism: Mass Murder, Political Legitimacy and the “Death of Development” in the Philippines.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, 1–26. doi:doi:10.1080/00472336.2021.1910859.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Aelst, P., J. Strömbäck, T. Aalberg, F. Esser, C. de Vreese, J. Matthes, D. Hopmann, et al. 2017. “Political Communication in a High-Choice Media Environment: A Challenge for Democracy?” Annals of the International Communication Association 41 (1): 3–27. doi:10.1080/23808985.2017.1288551.
   Google Scholar
• Vera Files & RSF. 2016. Media Ownership Monitor Philippines. https://philippines.mom-rsf.org/fileadmin/rogmom/output/philippines.mom-rsf.org/philippines.mom-rsf.org-en.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Vos, T. P., and J. Moore. 2020. “Building the Journalistic Paradigm: Beyond Paradigm Repair.” Journalism 21 (1): 17–33. doi:10.1177/1464884918767586.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waisbord, S. 2020. “Mob Censorship: Online Harassment of US Journalists in Times of Digital Hate and Populism.” Digital Journalism 8 (8): 1030–1046. doi:10.1080/21670811.2020.1818111.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waisbord, S., and A. Amado. 2017. “Populist Communication by Digital Means: Presidential Twitter in Latin America.” Information, Communication & Society 20 (9): 1330–1346. doi:10.1080/1369118X.2017.1328521.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weaver, D. H. 1977. “The Press and Government Restriction: A Cross-National Study Over Time.” Gazette (Leiden, Netherlands) 23 (3): 152–169. doi:10.1177/001654927702300301.
   Google Scholar
• Weaver, D. H., R. A. Beam, B. J. Brownlee, P. S. Voakes, and G. C. Wilhoit. 2007. The American Journalist in the 21st Century: U.S. News People at the Dawn of a New Millennium. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Whipple, K. N., and J. L. Shermak. 2020. “The Enemy of My Enemy is My Tweet: How #NotTheEnemy Twitter Discourse Defended the Journalistic Paradigm.” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 97 (1): 188–210. doi:10.1177/1077699019851755.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar