References
- ACLED (Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project). 2021a. Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED) Codebook. Grafton, WI: ACLED. Accessed February 9, 2022. https://acleddata.com/acleddatanew/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/ACLED_Codebook_v1_January-2021.pdf.
- ACLED (Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project). 2021b. FAQs: Political Violence Targeting Women (PVTW), Demonstrations Featuring Women (DFW), and Political Violence Targeting Women in Politics (PVTWIP). Grafton, WI: ACLED. Accessed February 9, 2022. https://acleddata.com/acleddatanew/wp-content/uploads/dlm_uploads/2021/11/ACLED_Political-Violence-Targeting-Women_FAQs_12.2021.pdf.
- Ahmed, Sara. 2017. Living a Feminist Life. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
- Alemu, Sintayehu Hailu, Luuk van Kempen, and Ruerd Ruben. 2018. “Women Empowerment through Self-Help Groups: The Bittersweet Fruits of Collective Apple Cultivation in Highland Ethiopia.” Journal of Human Development and Capabilities 19 (3): 308–330.
- Amponsah, Nana Akua, and Janet Serwah Boateng. 2021. “Women in Local Government in Africa: Gender, Resistance, and Empowerment.” In The Palgrave Handbook of African Women’s Studies, edited by Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso and Toyin Falola, 393–412. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
- Bardall, Gabrielle. 2011. Breaking the Mold: Understanding Gender and Electoral Violence. Washington, DC: International Foundation for Electoral Systems.
- Bardall, Gabrielle, Elin Bjarnegård, and Jennifer M. Piscopo. 2020. “How Is Political Violence Gendered? Disentangling Motives, Forms, and Impacts.” Political Studies 68 (4): 916–935.
- Berry, Marie. 2017. “Barriers to Progress after Atrocity: Evidence from Rwanda and Bosnia-Herzegovina.” Gender & Society 31 (6): 830–853.
- Berry, Marie. 2018. War, Women, and Power: From Violence to Mobilization in Rwanda and Bosnia-Herzegovina. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Berry, Marie, and Milli Lake. 2021. “Women’s Rights after War: On Gender Interventions and Enduring Hierarchies.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 17: 459–481.
- Berry, Marie, Yolande Bouka, and Marilyn Muthoni Kamuru. 2021. “Implementing Inclusion: Gender Quotas, Inequality, and Backlash in Kenya.” Politics & Gender 17 (4): 640–664.
- Besley, Timothy, and Torsten Persson. 2011. “The Logic of Political Violence.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 126 (3): 1411–1445.
- Bhalla, Nita. 2018. “Kenyan MPs Block Drive for More Women in Politics.” Reuters, November 28. Accessed January 5, 2022. https://www.reuters.com/article/kenya-women-politics-idAFL4N1Y34OD.
- Bhalla, Nita. 2020. “Kenya’s Top Judge Advises Parliament to Dissolve over Lack of Women.” Reuters, September 21. Accessed January 5, 2022. https://www.reuters.com/article/kenya-women-politics-idAFL3N2GI2O5.
- Biroli, Flávia. 2018. “Violence against Women and Reactions to Gender Equality in Politics.” Politics & Gender 14 (4): 681–685.
- Bouka, Yolande, Marie Berry, and Marilyn Muthoni Kamuru. 2019. “Women’s Political Inclusion in Kenya’s Devolved Political System.” Journal of East African Studies 13 (2): 313–333.
- Brown, Wendy. 2000. “Suffering Rights as Paradoxes.” Constellations (Oxford, England) 7 (2): 208–229.
- Burnet, Jennie E. 2008. “Gender Balance and the Meanings of Women in Governance in Post-Genocide Rwanda.” African Affairs 107 (428): 361–386.
- Burnet, Jennie E. 2011. “Women Have Found Respect: Gender Quotas, Symbolic Representation, and Female Empowerment in Rwanda.” Politics & Gender 7 (3): 303–334.
- Bush, Sarah Sunn. 2011. “International Politics and the Spread of Quotas for Women in Legislatures.” International Organization 65 (1): 103–137.
- Caprioli, Mary. 2005. “Primed for Violence: The Role of Gender Inequality in Predicting Internal Conflict.” International Studies Quarterly 49 (2): 161–178.
- The Carter Center. 2018. Youth and Women’s Consultations on Political Participation. Atlanta, GA: The Carter Center. Accessed January 5, 2022. https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/news/peace_publications/democracy/kenya-youth-and-women-political-participation-report.pdf.
- Cederman, Lars-Erik, Andreas Wimmer, and Brian Min. 2010. “Why Do Ethnic Groups Rebel? New Data and Analysis.” World Politics 62 (1): 87–119.
- Celis, Karen. 2007. “Substantive Representation of Women: The Representation of Women’s Interests and the Impact of Descriptive Representation in the Belgian Parliament (1900–1979).” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy 28 (2): 85–114.
- Daily Nation. 2007. “Leaders’ Outrage over Attack.” Daily Nation, September 12.
- De Waal, Alex. 2009. “Mission without End? Peacekeeping in the African Political Marketplace.” International Affairs 85 (1): 99–113.
- Domingo, Pilar, Aoife McCullough, Florence Simbiri, and Bernadette Wanjala. 2016. Women and Power: Shaping the Development of Kenya’s 2010 Constitution. London: Overseas Development Institute. Accessed January 5, 2022. https://odi.org/en/publications/women-and-power-shaping-the-development-of-kenyas-2010-constitution/.
- Donno, Daniela, and Anne-Kathrin Kreft. 2018. “Authoritarian Institutions and Women’s Rights.” Comparative Political Studies 52 (5): 720–753.
- Eggers Del Campo, Isabel, and Janina Isabel Steinert. 2020. “The Effect of Female Economic Empowerment Interventions on the Risk of Intimate Partner Violence: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. Accessed February 9, 2022. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1524838020976088.
- Ericsson, Sanna. 2019. Backlash: Undesirable Effects of Female Economic Empowerment. Working Paper No. 12, Lund University, Sweden.
- Faludi, Susan. 1992. Backlash: The Undeclared War against American Women. Portland, OR: Broadway Books.
- Flood, Michael, Molly Dragiewicz, and Bob Pease. 2020. “Resistance and Backlash to Gender Equality.” Australian Journal of Social Issues 56 (3): 393–408.
- Gleditsch, Kristian Skrede, and Andrea Ruggeri. 2010. “Political Opportunity Structures, Democracy, and Civil War.” Journal of Peace Research 47 (3): 299–310.
- Guarnieri, Eleonora, and Helmut Rainer. 2018. “Female Empowerment and Male Backlash.” CESifo Working Paper No. 7009, Center for Economic Studies, University of Munich, Germany.
- Håkansson, Sandra. 2021. “Do Women Pay a Higher Price for Power? Gender Bias in Political Violence in Sweden.” Journal of Politics 83 (2): 515–531.
- Hanson, Susan. 1992. “Geography and Feminism: Worlds in Collision?” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 82 (4): 569–586.
- Hawkesworth, Mary. 2020. “Visibility Politics: Theorizing Racialized Gendering, Homosociality, and the Feminicidal State.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 45 (2): 311–319.
- Herrick, Rebekah, Sue Thomas, Lori Franklin, Marcia L. Godwin, Eveline Gnabasik, and Jean Reith Schroedel. 2019. “Physical Violence and Psychological Abuse against Female and Male Mayors in the United States.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 9 (4): 681–698.
- Horowitz, Donald. 1985. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
- Hudson, Valerie M., Bonnie Ballif-Spanvill, Mary Caprioli, and Chad F. Emmett. 2012. Sex and World Peace. New York: Columbia University Press.
- Hughes, Melanie M. 2009. “Armed Conflict, International Linkages, and Women’s Parliamentary Representation in Developing Nations.” Social Problems 56 (1): 174–204.
- Hughes, Melanie M., Mona Lena Krook, and Pamela Paxton. 2015. “Transnational Women’s Activism and the Global Diffusion of Gender Quotas.” International Studies Quarterly 59 (2): 357–372.
- Human Rights Watch. 2017. “Kenya Elections 2017.” Human Rights Watch. Accessed January 5, 2022. https://www.hrw.org/blog-feed/kenya-elections-2017#.
- IEBC (Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission). 2020. Data Report of the 2017 Elections. Accessed February 9, 2022. https://www.iebc.or.ke/uploads/resources/siEABKREDq.pdf.
- IFES (International Foundation for Electoral Systems). 2019. “Violence against Women in Elections.” IFES. Accessed January 5, 2022. https://www.ifes.org/VAWE.
- ILO (International Labour Organization). 2020. “Labor Force, Female (% of Total Labor Force) (SL.TLF.TOTL.FE.ZS).” ILOSTAT database, World Bank World Development Indicators. World Bank. Accessed February 19, 2022. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.TOTL.FE.ZS.
- IPS (Inter Press Service). 2008. “Q&A: ‘But They Never Killed My Spirit.’” IPS News, May 29. Accessed January 5, 2022. http://www.ipsnews.net/2008/05/qa-quotbut-they-never-killed-my-spiritquot/.
- IPU (Inter-Parliamentary Union). 2016. Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians. Geneva: IPU. Accessed January 5, 2022. https://www.ipu.org/resources/publications/issue-briefs/2016-10/sexism-harassment-and-violence-against-women-parliamentarians.
- IPU (Inter-Parliamentary Union). 2020a. “Proportion of Seats Held by Women in National Parliaments (%) (SG.GEN.PARL.ZS).” IPU database, World Bank World Development Indicators. World Bank. Accessed February 9, 2022. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SG.GEN.PARL.ZS.
- IPU (Inter-Parliamentary Union). 2020b. “Metadata Glossary: Proportion of Seats Held by Women in National Parliaments (%) (SG.GEN.PARL.ZS).” IPU database, World Bank World Development Indicators. World Bank. Accessed February 19, 2022. https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SG.GEN.PARL.ZS.
- IPU (Inter-Parliamentary Union) and APU (African Parliamentary Union). 2021. Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women in Parliaments in Africa. Geneva: IPU.
- Jatfors, Anna-Karin. 2017. Violence against Women and Women’s Economic Empowerment. Bangkok: United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. Accessed February 9, 2022. https://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/Session%203%20-%20Anna-Karin%20Jatfors.pdf.
- Juhasz, Borbala, and Enikõ Pap. 2018. Backlash in Gender Equality and Women’s and Girls’ Rights. Brussels: European Parliament’s Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality. Accessed January 5, 2022. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2018/604955/IPOL_STU(2018)604955_EN.pdf.
- Kalyvas, Stathis N. 2006. The Logic of Violence in Civil War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Kavakli, Kerim Can. 2020. “Women’s Murders and the Interaction between Gender (In)Equality and Economic Development: A Subnational Analysis in Turkey.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence. Accessed January 5, 2022. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0886260520967164.
- Kishi, Roudabeh. 2021a. “Political Violence Targeting Women and Demonstrations Featuring Women: Introducing Data from ACLED.” Working paper.
- Kishi, Roudabeh. 2021b. Violence Targeting Women in Politics: Trends in Targets, Types, and Perpetrators of Political Violence. Grafton, WI: ACLED. Accessed January 21, 2022. https://acleddata.com/acleddatanew/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/ACLED_Report_PVTWIP_12.2021.pdf.
- Kishi, Roudabeh, Melissa Pavlik, and Hilary Matfess. 2019. “Terribly and Terrifyingly Normal”: Political Violence Targeting Women. Grafton, WI: ACLED. Accessed January 5, 2022. https://acleddata.com/acleddatanew/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/ACLED_Report_PoliticalViolenceTargetingWomen_5.2019.pdf.
- Kivoi, Douglas Lucas. 2014. “Factors Impeding Political Participation and Representation of Women in Kenya.” Humanities and Social Sciences 2 (6): 173–181.
- Koenig, Michael, Saifuddin Ahmed, Mian Bazle Hossain, A. B, and Khorshed Alam Mozumder. 2003. “Women’s Status and Domestic Violence in Rural Bangladesh: Individual- and Community-Level Effects.” Demography 40 (2): 269–288.
- Krook, Mona Lena. 2015. “Empowerment versus Backlash: Gender Quotas and Critical Mass Theory.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 3 (1): 184–188.
- Krook, Mona Lena. 2016. “Contesting Gender Quotas: Dynamics of Resistance.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 4 (2): 268–283.
- Krook, Mona Lena. 2020. Violence against Women in Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Krook, Mona Lena, and Juliana Restrepo Sanín. 2016. “Violence against Women in Politics: A Defense of the Concept.” Política y Gobierno 23 (2): 459–490.
- Krook, Mona Lena, and Juliana Restrepo Sanín. 2020. “The Cost of Doing Politics? Analyzing Violence and Harassment against Female Politicians.” Perspectives on Politics 18 (3): 740–755.
- Kuperberg, Rebecca. 2018. “Intersectional Violence against Women in Politics.” Politics & Gender 14 (4): 685–690.
- Marshall, Monty G., Ted Robert Gurr, and Keith Jaggers. 2017. Polity IV Project: Political Regime Characteristics and Transitions, 1800–2016: Dataset Users’ Manual. Vienna, VA: Center for Systemic Peace.
- Miguel, Edward, Shanker Satyanath, and Ernest Sergenti. 2004. “Economic Shocks and Civil Conflict: An Instrumental Variables Approach.” Journal of Political Economy 112 (4): 725–753.
- Muchui, David. 2017. “Activist Igoki’s Scars Fire Up Fight for Women’s Rights.” The Nation, September 24. Accessed January 5, 2022. https://nation.africa/kenya/news/activist-igoki-s-scars-fire-up-fight-for-women-s-rights-454786.
- Mueller, Hannes. 2016. “Growth and Violence: Argument for a Per Capita Measure of Civil War.” Economica 83 (331): 473–497.
- NDI (National Democratic Institute). 2018. “Think10.” NDI. Accessed February 9, 2022. https://think10.demcloud.org/.
- NDI (National Democratic Institute). 2020. “Reporting Violence against Women.” NDI. Accessed February 18, 2022. https://www.ndi.org/reporting-violence-against-women.
- Nobel Women’s Initiative. 2018. “Meet Shailja Patel, Kenya.” Nobel Women’s Initiative. Accessed January 5, 2022. https://nobelwomensinitiative.org/meet-shailja-patel-kenya/.
- Nyabola, Nanjala. 2016. “It’s Time to Axe Kenya’s Big Dick Politics.” African Arguments, March 1. Accessed January 5, 2022. https://africanarguments.org/2016/03/01/its-time-to-axe-kenyas-big-dick-politics/.
- Nzomo, Maria. 2015. “Women and Political Governance in Africa: A Feminist Perspective.” Pathways to African Feminism and Development: Same Story Different Narratives 1 (1): 26–47.
- Ohman, Magnus, and Carol Lintari. 2015. Political Party Financing and Equal Participation of Women in Kenyan Electoral Politics: A Situation Overview. Stockholm: International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance and the Netherlands Institute for Multiparty Democracy. Accessed January 5, 2022. https://www.idea.int/sites/default/files/publications/political-party-financing-and-equal-participation-of-women-in-kenyan-electoral-politics.pdf.
- Omotola, Shola. 2010. “Explaining Electoral Violence in Africa’s ‘New’ Democracies.” African Journal on Conflict Resolution 10 (3): 51–73.
- Okoosi-Simbine, Antonia Taiye, and Ndifon Neji Obi. 2021. “Women in Political Parties in Africa.” In The Palgrave Handbook of African Women’s Studies, edited by Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso and Toyin Falola, 315–334. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
- Orloff, Ann. 1996. “Gender in the Welfare State.” Annual Review of Sociology 22 (1): 51–78.
- Pike, Isabel. 2020. “A Discursive Spectrum: The Narrative of Kenya’s ‘Neglected’ Boy Child.” Gender & Society 34 (2): 284–306.
- Piscopo, Jennifer, and Denise Walsh. 2020. “Introduction.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 45 (2): 302–310.
- Raleigh, Clionadh. 2016. “Pragmatic and Promiscuous: Explaining the Rise of Competitive Political Militias across Africa.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 60 (2): 283–310.
- Raleigh, Clionadh, and Roudabeh Kishi. 2020. “Hired Guns: Using Pro-Government Militias for Political Competition.” Terrorism and Political Violence 32 (3): 582–603.
- Raleigh, Clionadh, Andrew Linke, Håvard Hegre, and Joakim Karlsen. 2010. “Introducing ACLED: An Armed Conflict Location & Event Dataset: Special Data Feature.” Journal of Peace Research 47 (5): 651–660.
- Ramtohul, Ramola. 2021. “Women, Gender, and Politics in Africa.” In The Palgrave Handbook of African Women’s Studies, edited by Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso and Toyin Falola, 297–313. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
- Ray, Raka, and Anna C. Korteweg. 1999. “Women’s Movements in the Third World: Identity, Mobilization, and Autonomy.” Annual Review of Sociology 25 (1): 47–71.
- Restrepo Sanín, Juliana. 2020. “Violence against Women in Politics: Latin America in an Era of Backlash.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 45 (2): 302–310.
- Restrepo Sanín, Juliana. 2022. “Violence against Women in Politics as an Unintended Consequence of Democratization.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 24 (1): 16–39.
- Ross, Michael L. 2004. “What Do We Know about Natural Resources and Civil War?” Journal of Peace Research 41 (3): 337–356.
- Rowley, Michelle V. 2020. “Anything but Reactionary: Exploring the Mechanics of Backlash.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 45 (2): 278–287.
- Star. 2017. “City MCA Accuses Majority Leader of Beating Her for Rejecting County Spending.” Star, December 8. Accessed January 5, 2022. https://www.genderinkenya.org/news/city-mca-accuses-majority-leader-of-beating-her-for-rejecting-county-spending/.
- Teele, Dawn Langan. 2018. Forging the Franchise: The Political Origins of the Women’s Vote. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
- Tremblay, Manon. 1998. “Do Female MPs Substantively Represent Women? A Study of Legislative Behaviour in Canada’s 35th Parliament.” Canadian Journal of Political Science/Revue Canadienne de Science Politique 31 (3): 435–465.
- Tripp, Aili. 2016. “Women’s Movements and Constitution Making after Civil Unrest and Conflict in Africa: The Cases of Kenya and Somalia.” Politics & Gender 12 (1): 78–106.
- Valdini, Melody E. 2019. The Inclusion Calculation: Why Men Appropriate Women’s Representation. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Vogt, Manuel, Nils-Christian Bormann, Seraina Rüegger, Lars-Erik Cederman, Philipp Hunziker, and Luc Girardin. 2015. “Integrating Data on Ethnicity, Geography, and Conflict: The Ethnic Power Relations Data Set Family.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 59 (7): 1327–1342.
- World Bank and Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development. 2020. “GDP per Capita Growth (Annual %) (NY.GDP.PCAP.KD.ZG).” World Bank World Development Indicators. World Bank. Accessed February 9, 2022. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.KD.ZG.
- Wucherpfennig, Julian, Nils B. Weidmann, Luc Girardin, Lars-Erik Cederman, and Andreas Wimmer. 2011. “Politically Relevant Ethnic Groups across Space and Time: Introducing the GeoEPR Dataset.” Conflict Management and Peace Science 28 (5): 423–437.
- Wyrod, Robert. 2008. “Between Women’s Rights and Men’s Authority: Masculinity and Shifting Discourses of Gender Difference in Urban Uganda.” Gender & Society 22 (6): 799–823.