Singapore, Manila and Harbin as Reference Points for Asian ‘Port Jewish’ Identity

NOTES

• e',Journal of Jewish Studies , 50.1 David Sorkin, The Port Jew: Notes Toward a Social Typ (Spring 1999), 87–97. Among the works Sorkin drew on were Lois C. Dubin, The Port Jews of Habsburg Trieste: Absolutist Politics and Enlightenment Culture (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999). Dubin has subsequendy offered port Jewish characteristics of her own, which differ from those of Sorkin, ‘“Wings on their feet…and wings on their head”: Reflections on the Study of Port Jews’, in this volume, pp. 14–30 (paper presented at the conference on “Port Jews and Jewish Communities in Cosmopolitan Maritime Trading Centres', University of Cape Town, 6 January 2003). Since Dubin's criteria have not yet appeared in final published form as of this writing, I refer only to Sorkin's five published characteristics. Arabic-speaking Jews from Baghdad, who have also been referred to as Levantine Jews, should not, strictly speaking, be classified as ‘Sephardim’, Jews of Iberian origin who retained Medieval Spanish or Portuguese as their mother tongue in varied places of exile. Nor should those Italian or Greek Jews whose forebears never lived in Iberia.
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• 1968 . Basic History of American Business 28 Princeton , NJ : Van Nostrand . Sorkin (see note 1), pp.89–90. The Sephardi and Italian-Jewish international trade infrastructure was similar to that which bound early American merchants from a particular city with each other and with their overseas financiers and agents. Economic historian Thomas C. Cochran observed that ‘in spite of intercolonial trade in some items, each major [early American] port was a separate business community remote from its neighbors. The personal ties that bound the business world together were more often between American merchants and the houses of Liverpool or London than between men on this side of the Atlantic. Businessmen of Charleston were more at home in London than in Boston’. Thomas C. Cochran, On Philadelphia Quakers as a case in point, see Richard Wain, Jr., Walnford Mill Accounts, 1772 (manuscript copies in the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia); [Stephen Winslow], Biographies if Successful Philadelphia Merchants (Philadelphia: James K. Simon, 1864), pp.129–32; and Jonathan Goldstein, Philadelphia and the China Trade, 1682–1846 Commercial, Cultural, and Attitudinal Effects (University Park and London: Penn State University Press, 1978), pp.11–12 and passim. A second case in point of networking in colonial and early national American trade are the Huguenots. In nineteenth-century East, Southeast and South Asia, the major ethnic networkers in maritime trade apart from Baghdadi Jews were the Parsees, Armenians and various communities of Chinese. See Assiya Siddiqi, The Business World of Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy', Indian Economic and Social History Review 19.3–4 (1982), 301–24.
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• Sorkin (see note 1), p.90.
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• Ibid., p.94. ‘Enlightened’ Jewish nationalists in the Far East included Anglophile Baghdadi Jews like Shanghai's Nissim Elias Benjamin Ezra (1883–1936), who edited and published the Zionist monthly Israel's Messenger from 1904 to 1936, and Harbin General Zionist leader and hospital director Dr Avraham Iosifovitch Kaufmann (1885–1971). Ezra, significantly, is representative of a generation which came after that of Sir Menasseh Meyer, which was influenced by traditional Baghdadi, pre—Herzlian love of Zion'. The ideologies of Ezra, Kaufman and their comrades and followers closely resembled those of eighteenth-to-twentieth-century American, Irish, Italian and Scottish nationalists who took Enlightened world views but simultaneously and proudly affirmed their national identities. On Zionism and other nineteenth-century nationalisms as expressions of European Enlightenment thinking, see Hugh Trevor—Roper, ‘Jewish and Other Nationalisms’, Commentary 35 (January 1963), 19–20. He writes that Zionist leaders were ‘Europeans of the Enlightenment [who] were not content with distant memories or merely religious traditions. If they revived the Hebrew language it was not merely to study the Scriptures or the Law. If they remembered their history it was not merely their ancient, sacred history. It was a Jew of the Emancipation, Heinrich Graetz, who wrote the first continuous history of the Jewish nation, carrying it through the destruction of the Second Temple, over the intervening centuries, to his own time. It was a Jew of the Emancipation, Moses Hess, who first urged escape from Europe to Jerusalem, and he urged it explicitly as a nationalist, secular movement, in imitation of the nationalist, secular Italian Risorgimento. If Zionism was the age-old hankering of Jews for the Holy Land, it was that hankering secularized: a return to Israel without waiting for the Messiah, or led by a secular Messiah—one, moreover, who was half-assimilated into Europe,. If [Zionism's] faithful masses came out of the Russian Pale, [their movement] was headed by half-assimilated men whom strict Jews might regard as litde better than Gentiles and whose life was led in the Western Cosmopolitan cities of Paris and Vienna’. On the connection between European Enlightenment thought and American, Irish and Scottish nationalism, see David Dickson, “Paine in Ireland”, and John Burns, ‘Scottish Radicalism and the United Irishmen’, both in David Dickson, Daire Keogh and Kevin Whelan (eds.), The United Irishmen: Republicanism, Radicalism, and Rebellion (Dublin: Lilliput Press, 1993), pp.134–50 and 151–66 respectively. Historian Eric Foner Notes that, in spite of all his propagandising for an Enlightened internationalism, Tom Paine both ‘called himself a “citizen of the world’” and ‘was an early advocate of a strong central government for America’. Eric Foner, Tom Paine and Revolutionary America (London: Oxford University Press, 1976), p. xix. On the ‘new Christians’, see Yehuda Bauer, A History of the Holocaust (New York: Franklin Watts, 2001), p.32.
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• Sorkin (see note 1), pp.95–6.
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• Goldstein (see note 2); Siddiqi (see note 2).
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• 1956 . A Jewish Pilgrimage 194 – 6 . London : Vallentine Mitchell . Primary sources on Far Eastern Baghdadi Jews include manuscript materials and printed, often mimeographed, reports in two repositories: the records of the British Commonwealth Jewish communities in the Hardey Library of the University of Southampton, UK (hereafter HL); and Jerusalem's Central Zionist Archives (hereinafter CZA). Other sources include Israel Cohen; Ezekiel Musleah, On the Banks of the Ganga (North Quincy, MA: Christopher, 1975), passim; Joan Roland, “Baghdadi Jews in India and China in the Nineteenth Century: A Comparison of Economic Roles'; Chiara Betta, ‘Silas Aaron Hardoon and Cross-Cultural Adaptation in Shanghai’; and Maruyama Naoki, The Shanghai Zionist Association and the International Politics of East Asia Until 1936', all three in Jonathan Goldstein, The Jews of China, vol. I (Armonk, NY and London: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), pp.141–56, 216–29 and 251–66 respectively; Cecil Roth, The Sassoon Dynasty (London: Robert Hale, 1941); Maisie J. Meyer, The Sephardi Jewish Community of Shanghai 1845–1939 and the Question of Identity (Ph.D. dissertation, London School of Economics, University of London, 1994); and Joan Roland, Jews in British India: Identity in a Colonial Era (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1993).
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• 1986 . History of Jews in Singapore 3 Singapore : HERBILU . Saphir, quoted in Eze Nathan, In 1883 the Singapore merchant WG. Gulland asserted that ‘the opium trade,. is wholly in the hands of Jews and Armenians,. and forms an important part of the Native trade of this city, as of almost all other eastern settlements’. LEGCO 1883 Straits Setdements, Straits Settlements Legislative Coundl Proceedings (Singapore: Government Printing Office, 1883), p.8. Twentieth-century Singapore community historian Nathan described the opium trade of Singapore Jews as ‘a legitimate short cut to wealth’. Nathan, History of Jews in Singapore, pp.8–9. Additional sources on the early history of Singapore Jewry include censuses reproduced in ibid., passim; Jacob Tomlin, Missionary Journals (London: James Nisbet, 1844), p.23; The Jews of Bagdad [sic]', J[ohn] T[urnbull] Thomson, Some GBmpses of Life in the Far East (London: Richardson, 1864), ch.43, pp.242–49; Charles Buckley, Anecdotal History of Old Time Singapore, vol.1 (Singapore: Fraser and Neave, 1902), p.311; Israel Cohen,Journal of a Jewish Traveller (London: John Lane, 1925), pp.198–208; Ida Cowen, Jews in Remote Corners of the World (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice—Hall, 1971), pp.141–7; Moshe Yegar, ‘Le-Toldot Ha-Kehillah Ha-Yehudit Be-Singapoor’ (Hebrew: On the History of the Jewish Community in Singapore) Gesher 1.78 (1974), 50–65; and Lionel Simmonds, ‘An Asian Odyssey’, Jewish Chronicle Magagne (London), November 1983, pp.16–17. Some Singapore Jews of Baghdadi origin did face a certain amount of social/employment discrimination in the colonial period as they were categorised not as ‘Jews’ but as Asians.
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• The Jews of Singapore: Special Interview with John Solomon', Israel's Messenger (Shanghai), 2 April 1926, p.21.
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• Simmonds (see note 8), p.16.
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• Joan Bieder, ‘Jewish Identity in Singapore: Cohesion, Dispersion, Survival’, unpublished paper (2002), p.11.
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• 1979 . Jewish Post , 20 September Simmonds (see note 8), p.16; Warren Freedman, The Jews of South-East Asia', p.74; Bieder (see note 13), pp.11–18. While the great majority of the permanently—resident Singapore Jews have always been Baghdadi, there have been significant figures with other origins, such as long-resident Romanian diamond merchants and some businessmen and medical doctors who escaped from Europe before the Holocaust and for whom members of the community sought work and residential permits. Jean Marshall, Singapore, email to the author, 31 March 2003.
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• Buckley (see note 8), vol.1, p.311. Buckley adds that Solomon also took ‘an enthusiastic interest in the manners, customs, and literature of the East”.
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• When Albert Einstein visited Meyer in 1922, he referred to Meyer as ‘Croessus’ (the legendary king of Lydia). Einstein viewed Chesed El as ‘a magnificent synagogue which was actually built for the purpose of communication between Croessus and Jehovah’. Bieder (see note 13), pp.1–2, 22–3; Parfitt (see note 9), p.72.
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• Rabinovitz , Louis . 1952 . Far Eastern Mission 158 Johannesburg : Eagle Press .
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• See note 4.
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• Cohen (see note 8), p.208; The Jews of Singapore' (see note 10), p.21; Orly Baher, The Baghdadi Jewish Community in Shanghai and Singapore', Points East (Menlo Park, CA) 17.2 (July 2002), p. l 5. Apart from the visible activism of the Menasseh Meyers, there were always unaffiliated and apathetic Jews and non-Zionists within the Singapore Jewish community.
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• Joan Bieder and Hanoch Gutfreund, ‘Einstein in Singapore: A Genius Abroad’, The Straits Times (The Sunday Plus Times Section), 2 January 2000, p.20; Bieder (see note 13), pp.1–2, 22–3; Baher (see note 21), p.15.
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• Letters: A. Goldstein, Kandy, Ceylon, to Zionist Executive, Jerusalem, 7January 1927, KH4 9610; Dr A. Bension, Singapore, to Leo Herrmann, Jerusalem, 9 April 1929, KH4 12347; M. Nissim, Singapore, to Keren Hayesod, Jerusalem, 9 April 1929, KH4 12347; Zvi Herman [sic], Jerusalem, to Mrs. S. Nissim, Singapore, 14 October 1952, KH4 12347, all CZA; Baher (see note 21), p.15.
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• Letter: Montague Ezekiel, Singapore, to Jewish Agency, Jerusalem, 1 October 1936, 56 3797, CZA.
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• Copy of Last Will of Hora Shooker, Singapore, 4 April 1941, KH4 12421, CZA.
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• 1969 . Governments and Politics of Southeast Asia 288 – 9 . Ithaca, NY and London : Cornell University Press . On Singapore in general during the Japanese occupation, see George M. Kahin, On the fate of Jews in particular, see personal account by Nathan (note 8), p. 109; Moshe Yegar, ‘A Rapid and Recent Rise and Fall’, Sephardi World (Jerusalem) no.3 [July-August 1984], p.10; and Beider (see note 13), p.24. A South African rabbi who spoke with Mozelle Nissim after the war recorded that she ‘had harrowing tales to tell of her adventures before she reached a haven of refuge in India, as had most of the Singapore Jews who had suffered either in concentration camps in Japan [e.g David Saul Marshall, a POW in Hokkaido] or under forced labor in Malaya’. Rabinovitz (see note 17), p. 158. On Marshall's life and career, see Letters: David Marshall, Singapore, to Chades S. Spencer, London, 6 May 1955; Michael Cohen, Singapore, to Charles Spencer, London, 15 August 1955; “Bulletin of Jewish Welfare Board, Singapore” (mimeographed), 1962, passim; “Profile: David Marshall”, Sunday Times [London], n. d., ca. 1956, all HL; Terrys Glick, ‘Jews in Southeast Asia’, Chronicle Review (December 1970), p.103; Denis D. Gray, ‘Conscience of Singapore speaks out fearlessly’, Atlanta Constitution, 1 May 1994, p. C6; Gray, ‘Jewish lawyer is Singapore's crusading conscience’, Jerusalem Post, 1 May 1994, p.3; Rabinovitz (see note 17), p.157; Cowen (see note 7), pp.146–7; Nathan (see note 8), pp.69, 80–81; and Chan Heng Chee, A Sensation cf Independence: A Political Biography of David Marshall (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1984). On Marshall's 1956 intervention with Zhou Enlai which enabled Chinese Jews to immigrate to Israel, see David Marshall, Letters from Mao's China (Singapore: Singapore Heritage Society, 1996); and Josef and Lynn Silverstein, “David Marshall and Jewish Emigration from China', China Quarterly 75 (September 1978), pp.647–54.
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• Lee Kuan Yew was the long-term leader of independent Singapore. ‘Jews in Singapore’, Israel Report no.5 (5 March 1977). The significant role Jews have played in Singapore's economic and political development, Singapore's overwhelmingly non-Muslim population, and the commonality of interests between Singapore and Israel in trade, technological and military matters, may explain why Lee Kuan Yew was willing to ‘take the heat’ from Arab and Muslim states for Singapore's ties with Israel Israel's President Chaim Herzog wrote that when he paid an official visit to Singapore in 1986, Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei withdrew their ambassadors from Singapore ‘for consultation’ for a few days. There were threats in Malaysia ‘to cut off Singapore's water supply’. According to Herzog, ‘thanks to Israel and its military mission in Singapore, the country was well equipped to defend itself and to deter Malaysia’. Chaim Herzog, Living History (London: Phoenix, 1998), p.308.
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• CZA file F49 634/1 contains approximately 100 letters between Fay Grove, chairperson, and other officials of WIZO and Alice Blitz and other Singapore Jewish women, concerning the formation of an active WIZO chapter in Singapore between the years 1956 and 1970; Yegar (see note 26), p.9.
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• ‘Report and Accounts of the Jewish Welfare Board [Singapore], January to December 1953’, HQ—There also was a small return exodus of Singaporean Jews who migrated to Israel. See ‘Repatriation of Jews from Israel to Singapore, 1952’, and Letter, Consular Section, British Embassy, Tel Aviv, to Consular Department, Foreign Office, 30 September 1952, CO/022/374, The National Archives, Kew, UK.
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• Encyclopedia Judaica , 14 ‘Bulletin of Jewish Welfare Board, Singapore, 14 March 1962’, mimeographed, File MS 137, A5/95/76, HL; (Jerusalem: Keter, 1971), pp.1608–10. Singapore Jewry turned out in force at a 1983 Israel Independence Day celebration given by Ambassador Nahum Eshkol at the Hyatt Regency Hotel, where the guests included the Egyptian chargé d'affaires, British diplomats, and leading figures in Singapore's political, commercial and professional life. Simmonds (see note 8), p.16.
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