Treating epileptic emergencies – pharmacological advances

References

• Rossetti AO, Trinka E, Stähli C, et al. New ILAE versus previous clinical status epilepticus semiologic classification: analysis of a hospital-based cohort. Epilepsia. 2016 Jul;57(7):1036–1041.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Betjemann JP, Lowenstein DH. Status epilepticus in adults. Lancet Neurol. 2015 Jun;14(6):615–624.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Treiman DM, Meyers PD, Walton NY, et al. A comparison of four treatments for generalized convulsive status epilepticus. Veterans Affairs Status Epilepticus Cooperative Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1998 Sep 17;339(12):792–798.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prasad M, Krishnan PR, Sequeira R, et al. Anticonvulsant therapy for status epilepticus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;9:CD003723.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silbergleit R, Durkalski V, Lowenstein D, et al. Intramuscular versus intravenous therapy for prehospital status epilepticus. N Engl J Med. 2012 Feb 16;366(7):591–600.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glauser T, Shinnar S, Gloss D, et al. Evidence-based guideline: treatment of convulsive status epilepticus in children and adults: report of the guideline committee of the American Epilepsy Society. Epilep Curr. 2016 Jan-Feb;16(1):48–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trinka E, Höfler J, Leitinger M, et al. Pharmacotherapy for status epilepticus. Drugs. 2015 Sep;75(13):1499–1521.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trinka E. What is the relative value of the standard anticonvulsants: phenytoin and fosphenytoin, phenobarbital, valproate, and levetiracetam? Epilepsia. 2009 Dec;50 Suppl 12:40–43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alvarez V, Januel J-M, Burnand B, et al. Second-line status epilepticus treatment: comparison of phenytoin, valproate, and levetiracetam. Epilepsia. 2011 Jul;52(7):1292–1296.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yasiry Z, Shorvon SD. The relative effectiveness of five antiepileptic drugs in treatment of benzodiazepine-resistant convulsive status epilepticus: a meta-analysis of published studies. Seizure. 2014 Mar;23(3):167–174.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cock HR, Group E. Established status epilepticus treatment trial (ESETT). Epilepsia. 2011 Oct;52 Suppl 8:50–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trinka E, Höfler J, Zerbs A, et al. Efficacy and safety of intravenous valproate for status epilepticus: a systematic review. CNS Drugs. 2014 Jul;28(7):623–639.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brigo F, Storti M, Del Felice A, et al. IV valproate in generalized convulsive status epilepticus: a systematic review. Eur J Neurol. 2012 Sep;19(9):1180–1191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agarwal P, Kumar N, Chandra R, et al. Randomized study of intravenous valproate and phenytoin in status epilepticus. Seizure. 2007 Sep;16(6):527–532.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeWolfe JL, Knowlton RC, Beasley MT, et al. Hyperammonemia following intravenous valproate loading. Epilepsy Res. 2009 Jul;85(1):65–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chicharro AV, De Marinis AJ, Kanner AM. The measurement of ammonia blood levels in patients taking valproic acid: looking for problems where they do not exist? Epilepsy Behav. 2007 Nov;11(3):361–366.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Limdi NA, Knowlton RK, Cofield SS, et al. Safety of rapid intravenous loading of valproate. Epilepsia. 2007 Mar;48(3):478–483.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nanau RM, Neuman MG. Adverse drug reactions induced by valproic acid. Clin Biochem. 2013 Oct;46(15):1323–1338.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zelano J, Kumlien E. Levetiracetam as alternative stage two antiepileptic drug in status epilepticus: a systematic review. Seizure. 2012 May;21(4):233–236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mundlamuri RC, Sinha S, Subbakrishna DK, et al. Management of generalised convulsive status epilepticus (SE): a prospective randomised controlled study of combined treatment with intravenous lorazepam with either phenytoin, sodium valproate or levetiracetam – pilot study. Epilepsy Res. 2015;114:52–58.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Misra UK, Kalita J, Maurya PK. Levetiracetam versus lorazepam in status epilepticus: a randomized, open labeled pilot study. J Neurol. 2012;259:645–648. doi:10.1007/s00415-011-6227-2. Epub 2011 Sep 6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Navarro V, Dagron C, Elie C, et al. Prehospital treatment with levetiracetam plus clonazepam or placebo plus clonazepam in status epilepticus (SAMUKeppra): a randomised, double-blind, phase 3 trial. Lancet Neurol. 2016 Jan;15(1):47–55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crepeau AZ, Treiman DM. Levetiracetam: a comprehensive review. Expert Rev Neurother. 2010 Feb;10(2):159–171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramael S, Daoust A, Otoul C, et al. Levetiracetam intravenous infusion: a randomized, placebo-controlled safety and pharmacokinetic study. Epilepsia. 2006 Jul;47(7):1128–1135.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burakgazi E, Bashir S, Doss V, et al. The safety and tolerability of different intravenous administrations of levetiracetam, bolus versus infusion, in intensive care unit patients. Clin EEG Neurosci. 2014 Apr;45(2):89–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lancelin F, Franchon E, Kraoul L, et al. Therapeutic drug monitoring of levetiracetam by high-performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array ultraviolet detection: preliminary observations on correlation between plasma concentration and clinical response in patients with refractory epilepsy. Ther Drug Monit. 2007 Oct;29(5):576–583.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stepanova D, Beran RG. Measurement of levetiracetam drug levels to assist with seizure control and monitoring of drug interactions with other anti-epileptic medications (AEMs). Seizure. 2014 May;23(5):371–376.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spencer DD, Jacobi J, Juenke JM, et al. Steady-state pharmacokinetics of intravenous levetiracetam in neurocritical care patients. Pharmacotherapy. 2011 Oct;31(10):934–941.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Höfler J, Trinka E. Lacosamide as a new treatment option in status epilepticus. Epilepsia. 2013 Mar;54(3):393–404.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paquette V, Culley C, Greanya ED, et al. Lacosamide as adjunctive therapy in refractory epilepsy in adults: a systematic review. Seizure. 2015 Feb;25:1–17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krause LU, Brodowski KO, Kellinghaus C. Atrioventricular block following lacosamide intoxication. Epilepsy Behav. 2011 Apr;20(4):725–727.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shorvon S, Trinka E. Status epilepticus – making progress. Epilepsia. 2011 Oct;52(Suppl 8):1–2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferlisi M, Shorvon S. The outcome of therapies in refractory and super-refractory convulsive status epilepticus and recommendations for therapy. Brain. 2012 Aug;135(Pt 8):2314–2328.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shelton CM, Alford EL, Storgion S, et al. Enteral topiramate in a pediatric patient with refractory status epilepticus: a case report and review of the literature. J Pediatr Pharmacol Ther. 2014 Oct–Dec;19(4):317–324.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Asadi-Pooya AA, Jahromi MJ, Izadi S, et al. Treatment of refractory generalized convulsive status epilepticus with enteral topiramate in resource limited settings. Seizure. 2015 Jan;24:114–117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madžar D, Kuramatsu JB, Gerner ST, et al. Assessing the value of topiramate in refractory status epilepticus. Seizure. 2016 May;38:7–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abou-Khalil B, Wheless J, Rogin J, et al. A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of a diazepam auto-injector administered by caregivers to patients with epilepsy who require intermittent intervention for acute repetitive seizures. Epilepsia. 2013 Nov;54(11):1968–1976.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKee HR, Abou-Khalil B. Outpatient pharmacotherapy and modes of administration for acute repetitive and prolonged seizures. CNS Drugs. 2015 Jan;29(1):55–70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shorvon S. Clinical trials in acute repetitive seizures and status epilepticus. Epileptic Disord. 2012 Jun;14(2):138–147.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Höfler J, Unterberger I, Dobesberger J, et al. Intravenous lacosamide in status epilepticus and seizure clusters. Epilepsia. 2011 Oct;52(10):e148–e152.
   Google Scholar
• Gilad R, Izkovitz N, Dabby R, et al. Treatment of status epilepticus and acute repetitive seizures with i.v. valproic acid vs phenytoin. Acta Neurol Scand. 2008 Nov;118(5):296–300.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goraya JS, Khurana DS, Valencia I, et al. Intravenous levetiracetam in children with epilepsy. Pediatr Neurol. 2008 Mar;38(3):177–180.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Logsdail SJ, Toone BK. Post-ictal psychoses. A clinical and phenomenological description. Br J Psychiatry. 1988 Feb;152:246–252.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adachi N, Kanemoto K, De Toffol B, et al. Basic treatment principles for psychotic disorders in patients with epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2013;54 Suppl 1:19–33.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clancy MJ, Clarke MC, Connor DJ, et al. The prevalence of psychosis in epilepsy; a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry. 2014;14:75.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mula M, Kanner AM, Schmitz B, et al. Antiepileptic drugs and suicidality: an expert consensus statement from the Task Force on Therapeutic Strategies of the ILAE Commission on Neuropsychobiology. Epilepsia. 2013 Jan;54(1):199–203.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawton K, Witt KG, Taylor Salisbury TL, et al. Pharmacological interventions for self-harm in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;7:CD011777.
   Google Scholar
• Arroyo S, De La Morena A. Life-threatening adverse events of antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsy Res. 2001 Nov;47(1–2):155–174.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaccara G, Franciotta D, Perucca E. Idiosyncratic adverse reactions to antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia. 2007 Jul;48(7):1223–1244.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willmore LJ. Monitoring and antiepileptic drug safety. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2013 Jun;19(3 Epilepsy):801–805.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Franciotta D, Kwan P, Perucca E. Genetic basis for idiosyncratic reactions to antiepileptic drugs. Curr Opin Neurol. 2009 Apr;22(2):144–149.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sutter R, Marsch S, Fuhr P, et al. Anesthetic drugs in status epilepticus: risk or rescue? A 6-year cohort study. Neurology. 2014 Feb 25;82(8):656–664.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kowalski RG, Ziai WC, Rees RN, et al. Third-line antiepileptic therapy and outcome in status epilepticus: the impact of vasopressor use and prolonged mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med. 2012 Sep;40(9):2677–2684.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hocker SE. Status epilepticus. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2015 Oct;21(5 Neurocritical Care):1362–1383.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar