Current and up-and-coming pharmacotherapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder in adults

References

• Ruscio AM, Stein DJ, Chiu WT, et al. The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in the national comorbidity survey replication. Mol Psychiatry. 2010;15:53–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fineberg NA, Reghunandanan S, Simpson HB, et al. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): practical strategies for pharmacological and somatic treatment in adults. Psychiatry Res. 2015;227(1):114–125.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pallanti S, Grassi G, Cantisani A. Emerging drugs to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs. 2014;19(1):67–77.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pallanti S, Hollander E, Bienstock C, et al. Treatment non-response in OCD: methodological issues and operational definitions. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2002;5(2):181–191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burchi E, Hollander E, Pallanti S. From treatment response to recovery - a realistic goal in OCD. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2018.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pittenger C. Glutamatergic agents for OCD and related disorders. Curr Treat Options Psychiatry. 2015;2(3):271–283.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marinova Z, Chuang DM, Fineberg N. Glutamate-modulating drugs as a potential therapeutic strategy in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2017;15:977–995.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chakrabarty R, Bhattacharyya S, Christopher R, et al. Glutamatergic dysfunction in OCD. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2005;30(9):1735–1740.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhattacharyya S, Khanna S, Chakrabarty R, et al. Anti-brain autoantibodies and altered excitatory neurotransmitters in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2009;34(12):2489–2496.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yücel M, Wood SJ, Wellard RM, et al. Anterior cingulate glutamate-glutamine levels predict symptom severity in women with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2008;42(6):467–477.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Starck G, Ljungberg M, Nilsson M, et al. A 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy study in adults with obsessive compulsive disorder: relationship between metabolite concentrations and symptom severity. J Neural Transm (Vienna). 2008;115(7):1051–1062.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg DR, MacMaster FP, Keshavan MS, et al. Decrease in caudate glutamatergic concentrations in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder patients taking paroxetine. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39:1096–1103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg DR, Mirza Y, Russell A, et al. Reduced anterior cingulate glutamatergic concentrations in childhood OCD and major depression versus healthy controls. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004;43:1146–1153.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Neill J, Piacentini J, Chang S, et al. Glutamate in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder and response to cognitive-behavioral therapy: randomized clinical trial. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2017;42(12):2414–2422.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brennan BP, Rauch SL, Jensen JE, et al. A critical review of magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2013;73:24–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajendram R, Kronenberg S, Burton CL, et al. Glutamate genetics in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a review. J Can Acad Adolesc Psychiatry. 2017;26(3):205–213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Egashira N, Okuno R, Harada S, et al. Effects of glutamate-related drugs on marble-burying behavior in mice: implications for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Eur J Pharmacol. 2008;586(1–3):164–170.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molero P, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Martin-Santos R, et al. Antidepressant efficacy and tolerability of ketamine and esketamine: a critical review. CNS Drugs. 2018.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez CI, Kegeles LS, Flood P, et al. Rapid resolution of obsessions after an infusion of intravenous ketamine in a patient with treatment-resistant obsessivecompulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2011;72:567–569.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloch MH, Wasylink S, Landeros-Weisenberger A, et al. Effects of ketamine in treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2012;72:964–970.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niciu MJ, Grunschel BD, Corlett PR, et al. Two cases of delayed-onset suicidal ideation, dysphoria and anxiety after ketamine infusion in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder and a history of major depressive disorder. J Psychopharmacol. 2013;27(7):651–654.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez CI, Kegeles LS, Levinson A, et al. Randomized controlled crossover trial of ketamine in obsessive-compulsive disorder: proof-of-concept. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2013;38(12):2475–2483.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez CI, Kegeles LS, Levinson A, et al. In vivo effects of ketamine on glutamate-glutamine and gamma-aminobutyric acid in obsessive-compulsive disorder: proof of concept. Psychiatry Res. 2015;233(2):141–147.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams NR, Heifets BD, Blasey C, et al. Attenuation of antidepressant effects of ketamine by opioid receptor antagonism. Am J Psychiatry. 2018.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez CI, Wheaton M, Zwerling J, et al. Can exposure-based CBT extend IV Ketamine’s effects in obsessive-compulsive disorder? An open-label trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2016;77(3):408–409.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez CI, Levinson A, Zwerling J, et al. Open-Label trial on the effects of memantine in adults with obsessive-compulsive disorder after a single ketamine infusion. J Clin Psychiatry. 2016;77(5):688–689.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moskal JR, Burch R, Burgdorf JS, et al. GLYX-13, an NMDA receptor glycine site functional partial agonist enhances cognition and produces antidepressant effects without the psychotomimetic side effects of NMDA receptor antagonists. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2014;23(2):243–254.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez CI, Zwerling J, Kalanthroff E, et al. Effect of a novel NMDA receptor modulator, rapastinel (Formerly GLYX-13), in OCD: proof of concept. Am J Psychiatry. 2016;173(12):1239–1241.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linkovski O, Shen H, Zwerling J, et al. Effects of rapastinel (Formerly GLYX-13) on serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2018;79:1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poyurovsky M, Weizman R, Weizman A, et al. Memantine for treatment-resistant OCD. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162(11):2191–2192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pasquini M, Biondi M. Memantine augmentation for refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2006;30(6):1173–1175.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hezel DM, Beattie K, Stewart SE. Memantine as an augmenting agent for severe pediatric OCD. Am J Psychiatry. 2009;166(2):237.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pekrul SR, Fitzgerald KD. Memantine augmentation in a down’s syndrome adolescent with treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2015;25(7):593–595.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aboujaoude E, Barry JJ, Gamel N. Memantine augmentation in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: an open-label trial. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2009;29(1):51–55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feusner JD, Kerwin L, Saxena S, et al. Differential efficacy of memantine for obsessive-compulsive disorder vs generalized anxiety disorder: an open-label trial. Psychopharmacol Bull. 2009;42(1):81–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakhla AK, Verma V, Soren S, et al. An open-label trial of memantine in treatment-resistant obsessivecompulsive disorder. Ind Psychiatry J. 2013;22(2):149–152.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stewart SE, Jenike EA, Hezel DM, et al. A single-blinded case-control study of memantine in severe obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2010;30(1):34–39.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haghighi M, Jahangard L, Mohammad-Beigi H, et al. In a double-blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trial, adjuvant memantine improved symptoms in inpatients suffering from refractory obsessive-compulsive disorders (OCD). Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2013;228:633–640.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghaleiha A, Entezari N, Modabbernia A, et al. Memantine add-on in moderate to severe obsessive-compulsive disorder: randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. J Psychiatr Res. 2013;47:175–180.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Modarresi A, Sayyah M, Razooghi S, et al. Memantine augmentation improves symptoms in serotonin reuptake inhibitor-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2017.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sansone RA, Sansone LA. Getting a Knack for NAC: N-Acetyl- Cysteine. Innov Clin Neurosci. 2011;8(1):10–14.
   Google Scholar
• Grant JE, Odlaug BL, Kim SW. N-acetylcysteine, a glutamate modulator, in the treatment of trichotillomania: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009;66(7):756–763.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant JE, Chamberlain SR, Redden SA, et al. N-Acetylcysteine in the treatment of excoriation disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2016;73(5):490–496.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costa DL, Diniz JB, Requena G, et al. Randomized, doubleblind, placebo-controlled trial of N-acetylcysteine augmentation for treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2017;16:11101.
   Google Scholar
• Sarris J, Oliver G, Camfield DA, et al. N-Acetyl Cysteine (NAC) in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: A 16-week, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. CNS Drugs. 2015;29(9):801–809.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Afshar H, Roohafza H, Mohammad-Beigi H, et al. Nacetylcysteine add-on treatment in refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2012;32(6):797–803.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paydary K, Akamaloo A, Ahmadipour A, et al. N-acetylcysteine augmentation therapy for moderate-to-severe obsessive-compulsive disorder: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2016;41(2):214–219.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghanizadeh A, Mohammadi MR, Bahraini S, et al. Efficacy of N-Acetylcysteine augmentation on obsessive compulsive disorder: a multicenter randomized double blind placebo controlled clinical trial. Iran J Psychiatry. 2017;12(2):134–141.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shen Y, He P, Fan Y, et al. Carnosine protects against permanent cerebral ischemia in histidine decarboxylase knockout mice by reducing glutamate excitotoxicity. Free Radic Biol Med. 2010;48:727–735.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rossignol DA. Novel and emerging treatments for autism spectrum disorders: a systematic review. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2009;21:213–236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szczesniak D, Budzen S, Kopec W, et al. Anserine and carnosine supplementation in the elderly: effects on cognitive functioning and physical capacity. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2014;59:485–490.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chengappa KN, Turkin SR, DeSanti S, et al. A preliminary, randomized, double‐ blind, placebo‐controlled trial of L carnosine to improve cognition in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res. 2012;142:145–152.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arabzadeh S, Shahhossenie M, Mesgarpour B, et al. L-carnosine as an adjuvant to fluvoxamine in treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder: A randomized double-blind study. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2017;32(4):1–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leng Y, Fessler EB, Chuang DM. Neuroprotective effects of the mood stabilizer lamotrigine against glutamate excitotoxicity: roles of chromatin remodelling and Bcl-2 induction. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2013;16(3):607–620.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruno A, Micò U, Pandolfo G, et al. Lamotrigine augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 2012;26(11):1456–1462.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khalkhali M, Aram S, Zarrabi H, et al. Lamotrigine augmentation versus placebo in serotonin reuptake inhibitors- resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Iran J Psychiatry. 2016;11(2):104–114.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Poyurovsky M, Glick I, Koran LM. Lamotrigine augmentation in schizophrenia and schizoaffective patients with obsessive-compulsive symptoms. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 2010;24(6):861–866.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mowla A, Khajeian AM, Sahraian A, et al. Topiramate augmentation in resistant OCD: a doubleblind placebo-controlled clinical trial. CNS Spectr. 2010;15(11):613–617.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berlin HA, Koran LM, Jenike MA, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of topiramate augmentation in treatment-resistant obsessivecompulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2011;72(5):716–721.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Afshar H, Akuchekian S, Mahaky B, et al. Topiramate augmentation in refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Res Med Sci. 2014;19(10):976–981.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenberg WM, Benedict MM, Doerfer J, et al. Adjunctive glycine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder in adults. J Psychiatr Res. 2009;43(6):664–670.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Leeuw AS, van Megen HJ, Kahn RS, et al. D-cycloserine addition to exposure sessions in the treatment of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Eur Psychiatry. 2017;40:38–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mataix-Cols D, Fernández de la Cruz L, Monzani B, et al. D-Cycloserine augmentation of exposure-based cognitive behavior therapy for anxiety, obsessive-compulsive, and posttraumatic stress disordersa systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data. JAMA Psychiatry. 2017;74(5):501–510.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGuire JF, Wu MS, Piacentini J, et al. A meta-analysis of D-Cycloserine in exposure-based treatment: moderators of treatment efficacy, response, and diagnostic remission. J Clin Psychiatry. 2017;78(2):196–206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Storch EA, Wilhelm S, Sprich S, et al. Efficacy of augmentation of cognitive behavior therapy with weight-adjusted d-Cycloserine vs placebo in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2016;73(8):779–788.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu PL, Tang HS, Lane HY, et al. Sarcosine therapy for obsessive compulsive disorder: a prospective, openlabel study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2011;31(3):369–374.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant PJ, Joseph LA, Farmer CA, et al. 12-week, placebo-controlled trial of add-on riluzole in the treatment of childhood-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2014;39(6):1453–1459.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pittenger C, Bloch MH, Wasylink S, et al. Riluzole augmentation in treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a pilot randomized placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2015;76(8):1075–1084.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emamzadehfard S, Kamaloo A, Paydary K, et al. Riluzole in augmentation of fluvoxamine for moderate to severe obsessive-compulsive disorder: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2016;70(8):332–341.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khandaker GM, Dantzer R, Jones PB. Immunopsychiatry: important facts. Psychol Med. 2017;47(13):2229–2237.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohler O, Benros ME, Nordentoft M, et al. Effect of anti-inflammatory treatment on depression, depressive symptoms, and adverse effects: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. JAMA Psychiatry. 2014;71:1381–1391.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sommer IE, van Westrhenen R, Begemann MJ, et al. Efficacy of anti-inflammatory agents to improve symptoms in patients with schizophrenia: an update. Schizophr Bull. 2014;40:181–191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swedo SE, Leonard HL, Garvey M, et al. Pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections: clinical description of the first 50 cases. Am J Psychiatry. 1998;155(2):264–271.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swedo SE, Leckman JF, Rose NR. From research subgroup to clinical syndrome: modifying the PANDAS criteria to describe PANS (pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome). Pediatr Ther. 2012;2:113.
   Google Scholar
• Chiarello F, Spitoni S, Hollander E, et al. An expert opinion on PANDAS/PANS: highlights and controversies. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract. 2017;21(2):91–98.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearlman DM, Vora HS, Marquis BG, et al. Anti-basal ganglia antibodies in primary obsessive-compulsive disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry. 2014;205(1):8–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodríguez N, Morer A, González-Navarro EA, et al. Inflammatory dysregulation of monocytes in pediatric patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Neuroinflammation. 2017;14(1):261.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Korostil M, Feinstein A. Anxiety disorders and their clinical correlates in multiple sclerosis patients. Mult Scler. 2007;13(1):67–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bachen EA, Chesney MA, Criswell LA. Prevalence of mood and anxiety disorders in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 2009;61(6):822–829.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mataix-Cols D, Frans E, Pérez-Vigil A, et al. A total-population multigenerational family clustering study of autoimmune diseases in obsessive-compulsive disorder and Tourette’s/chronic tic disorders. Mol Psychiatry. 2017;23(7):1652–1658.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeon SW, Kim YK. The role of neuroinflammation and neurovascular dysfunction in major depressive disorder. J Inflamm Res. 2018;11:179–192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gobin V, Van Steendam K, Denys D, et al. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors as a novel class of immunosuppressants. Int Immunopharmacol. 2014;20(1):148–156.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao NP, Venkatasubramanian G, Ravi V, et al. Plasma cytokine abnormalities in drug-naïve, comorbidity-free obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2015;229(3):949–952.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Attwells S, Setiawan E, Wilson AA, et al. Inflammation in the neurocircuitry of obsessive-compulsive disorder. JAMA Psychiatry. 2017;74(8):833–840.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burchi E, Pallanti S. Antibiotics for PANDAS? Limited Evidence: review and Putative Mechanisms of Action. Prim Care Companion CNS Disord. 2018;20:3.
   Google Scholar
• Spartz EJ, Jr FGM, Brown K, et al. Course of neuropsychiatric symptoms after introduction and removal of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: a pediatric observational study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2017;27(7):652–659.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimura T, Iwase M, Kondo G, et al. Suppressive effect of selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor on cytokine release in human neutrophils. Int Immunopharmacol. 2003;3:1519–1528.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strauss KI, Marini AM. Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition protects cultured cerebellar granule neurons from glutamate-mediated cell death. J Neurotrauma. 2002;19:627–638.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abbasi SH, Hosseini F, Modabbernia A, et al. Effect of celecoxib add-on treatment on symptoms and serum IL-6 concentrations in patients with major depressive disorder: randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. J Affect Disord. 2012;141(2–3):308–314.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sayyah M, Boostani H, Pakseresht S, et al. A preliminary randomized double-blind clinical trial on the efficacy of celecoxib as an adjunct in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2011;189(3):403–406.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shalbafan M, Mohammadinejad P, Shariat SV, et al. Celecoxib as an adjuvant to fluvoxamine in moderate to severe obsessive-compulsive disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2015;48(4–5):136–140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amantea D, Bagetta G. Drug repurposing for immune modulation in acute ischemic stroke. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2016;26:124–130.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez CI, Bender J, Marcus SM, et al. Minocycline augmentation of pharmacotherapy in obsessive-compulsive disorder: an open-label trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010;71(9):1247–1249.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esalatmanesh S, Abrishami Z, Zeinoddini A, et al. Minocycline combination therapy with fluvoxamine in moderate- to-severe obsessive-compulsive disorder: a placebo-controlled, double-blind, randomized trial. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2016;70(11):517–526.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiedlocha M, Marcinowicz P, Krupa R, et al. Effect of antidepressant treatment on peripheral inflammation markers - A meta-analysis. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2018;80:217–226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turna J, Grosman Kaplan K, Anglin R, et al. “What’s bugging the gut in ocd?” a review of the gut microbiome in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Depress Anxiety. 2016;33(3):171–178.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naseribafrouei A, Hestad K, Avershina E, et al. Correlation between the human fecal microbiota and depression. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2014;26:1155–1162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiang H, Ling Z, Zhang Y, et al. Altered fecal microbiota composition in patients with major depressive disorder. Brain Behav Immun. 2015;48:18–194.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins SM, Surette M, Bercik P. The interplay between the intestinal microbiota and the brain. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2012;10:735–742.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sudo N, Chida Y, Aiba Y, et al. Postnatal microbial colonization programs the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system for stress response in mice. J Physiol. 2004;558:263–275.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thayer JF, Sternberg EM. Neural concomitants of immunityfocus on the vagus nerve. Neuroimage. 2009;47:908–910.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamada N, Nunez G. Regulation of the immune system by the resident intestinal bacteria. Gastroenterology. 2014;146:1477–1488.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kantak PA, Bobrow DN, Nyby JG. Obsessive–compulsivelike behaviors in house mice are attenuated by a probiotic (Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG). Behav Pharmacol. 2014;25(1):71–79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messaoudi M, Violle N, Bisson J, et al. Beneficial psychological effects of a probiotic formulation (Lactobacillus helveticus R0052 and Bifidobacterium longum R0175) in healthy human volunteers. Gut Microbes. 2011;2(4):256–261.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clinical Trials. [ cited 2018 Aug 13]. Available from: Gov.www.clinicaltrials.gov
   Google Scholar
• Insel T, Cuthbert B. Research Domain Criteria (RDoC): toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 2010;167:748–751.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Insel TR. The NIMH Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) Project: precision medicine for psychiatry. Am J Psychiatry. 2014;171:395–397.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mataix-Cols D, Wooderson S, Lawrence N, et al. Distinct neural correlates of washing, checking, and hoarding symptom dimensions in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004;61(6):564–576.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nestadt G, Di CZ, Riddle MA, et al. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: sub-classification based on co-morbidity. Psychol Med. 2009;39(9):1491–1501.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pallanti S, Grassi G, Sarrecchia ED, et al. Obsessive-compulsive disorder comorbidity: clinical assessment and therapeutic implications. Front Psychiatry. 2011;2:70.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grassi G, Pallanti S, Righi L, et al. Think twice: impulsivity and decision making in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Behav Addict. 2015;4(4):263–272.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pallanti S, Grassi G, Marras A, et al. Can we modulate obsessive-compulsive networks with neuromodulation? J Psychopathology. 2015;21:262–265.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pallanti S, Marras A, Grassi G. Outcomes with neuromodulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatr Ann. 2015;45(6):316–320.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Foundation Genetics Collaborative (IOCDF-GC) and OCD Collaborative Genetics Association Studies (OCGAS). Revealing the complex genetic architecture of obsessive-compulsive disorder using meta-analysis. Mol Psychiatry. 2018;23(5):1181–1188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajendram R, Kronenberg S, Burton CL, et al. Glutamate genetics in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a review. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2017;26(3):205–213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiang C, Ma X, Qi S, et al. Association between TNF-α-238G/A gene polymorphism and OCD susceptibility: A meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2018;97(5):9769.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar