Multiparty elections and land patronage: Zimbabwe and Côte d'Ivoire

References

• Akindès , F. 2004 . The roots of the military-political crises in Côte d'Ivoire . Nordic Africa Institute Research Report No. 128. Uppsala: Nordic Africa Institute
   Google Scholar
• Alden Wily , L. 2001 . Reconstructing the African commons . Africa Today , 48 ( 1 ) : 77 – 99 .
   Google Scholar
• Alexander , J. 1991 . The unsettled land: the politics of land redistribution in Matabeleland, 1980–1990 . Journal of Southern African Studies , 17 ( 4 ) : 581 – 610 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander , J. 2006 . The Unsettled Land: State-making and the Politics of Land in Zimbabwe 1893–2003 , Oxford : James Currey .
   Google Scholar
• Alexander , J. and McGregor , J. 2001 . Elections, land and the politics of opposition in Matabeleland . Journal of Agrarian Change , 1 ( 4 ) : 510 – 533 .
   Google Scholar
• Amin , N. 1992 . State and peasantry in Zimbabwe since independence . European Journal of Development Research , 4 ( 1 ) : 112 – 162 .
   Google Scholar
• Anyang'Nyong'o , P. 1987 . “ The development of Agrarian Capitalist Classes in the Ivory Coast, 1945–75 ” . In The African Bourgeoisie , Edited by: Lubeck , P. 185 – 248 . Boulder , CO : Lynne Rienner .
   Google Scholar
• Arnold , G. 1990 . The land dilemma . Africa Report , : 59 – 61 . March–April
   Google Scholar
• Babo , A. forthcoming . Transformations sociales et foncières en pays baoulé: L'essor des jeunes , Paris : Karthala .
   Google Scholar
• Babo , A. and Droz , Y. 2008 . Conflits fonciers, de l’éthnie à la nation: rapports interéthnique et ‘ivoirité’ dans le sud-ouest de la Côte d'Ivoire . Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines , 48 ( 4 ) : 741 – 763 . 192
   Google Scholar
• Baldé , S. n.d . Centre des Etudes d'Afrique Noire (SciencesPo, Université de Bordeaux) , Côte d'Ivoire : Situation Institutionelle . Available at http://www.etat.sciencespobordeaux.fr/institutionnel/cotivoir.html (accessed 22 January 2010)
   Google Scholar
• Bassett , T. 2003a . ‘Nord Musulman et Sud Crétien’: les moules médiatiques de la crise ivoirienne . Afrique Contemporaine , 206 ( 2 ) : 13 – 27 .
   Google Scholar
• Bassett , T. 2003b . Dangerous pursuits: Hunter Associations (donzo ton) and national politics in Côte d'Ivoire . Africa , 73 ( 1 ) : 1 – 29 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bates , R. H. 2008 . When Things Fell Apart: State Failure in Late-Century Africa , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bayart , J.-F. , Ellis , S. and Hibou , B. 1999 . The Criminalization of the State in Africa (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press; London: James Currey)
   Google Scholar
• BBC (2008) Zimbabweans activists ‘beaten up’, BBC, 8 April.
   Google Scholar
• Boone , C. 2003 . Political Topographies of the African State , Cambridge and New York : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Boone , C. 2007 . Africa's new territorial politics: regionalism and the open economy in Côte d'Ivoire . African Studies Review , 50 ( 1 ) : 59 – 81 .
   Google Scholar
• Boone , C. forthcoming . Politically-allocated land rights and the geography of electoral violence: the case of Kenya in the 1990s . Comparative Political Studies , 44
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowyer-Bell , T. A. S. and Stoneman , C. 2000 . “ Land reform's constraints and prospects: policies, perspectives and ideologies in Zimbabwe today ” . In Land Reform in Zimbabwe: Constraints and Prospects , Edited by: Bowyer-Bell , T. A. S. and Stoneman , C. 1 – 23 . Aldershot : Ashgate .
   Google Scholar
• Campbell , B. 2000 . Reinvention du Politique en Côte d'Ivoire . Politique Africaine , 78 : 142 – 156 .
   Google Scholar
• Campbell , B. 2003 . Defining development options and the new social compromises in the context of reduced political space: reflections on the crisis in Côte d'Ivoire . African Sociological Review , 7 ( 2 ) : 29 – 44 .
   Google Scholar
• Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE) . 2001 . Land, housing and property rights in Zimbabwe . COHRE Africa Programme Mission Report. Geneva: COHRE
   Google Scholar
• Chaumba , J. , Scoones , I. and Wolmer , W. 2003a . From jambanja to planning: the reassertion of technocracy in land reform in south-eastern Zimbabwe . Journal of Modern African Studies , 41 ( 4 ) : 533 – 554 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaumba , J. , Scoones , I. and Wolmer , W. 2003b . New politics, new livelihoods: agrarian change in Zimbabwe . Review of African Political Economy , 30 ( 98 ) : 585 – 608 .
   Google Scholar
• Chauveau , J.-P. 2000 . Question foncière et construction nationale en Côte d'Ivoire: les enjeux silencieux d'un coup d’état . Politique Africaine , 78 : 94 – 125 .
   Google Scholar
• Chauveau , J.-P. 2002a . Une lecture sociologique de la loi ivoirienne de 1998 sur le domaine foncier, IRD . Réfo. Doc. de Travail n. 6, Unité de Recherche 095, September. Montpellier, France: Institut de Recherche pour le Développement
   Google Scholar
• Chauveau , J.-P. 2002b . “ La loi ivoirienne de 1998 sur le domaine foncier rural et l'agriculture de planation villageoise: une mise en perspective historique et sociologique ” . In Land Reform/Réforme Agraire/Reforma Agraria Vol. 1 , 62 – 79 .
   Google Scholar
• Cheater, A. P. (1993) Ambiguities and contradictions in the political management of culture, in: C. M. Hahn (Ed.) Socialism, Ideals, Ideologies, and Local Practice, pp. 102–116 (London: Routledge).
   Google Scholar
• Chimhowu , A. O. 2002 . Extending the grain basket to the margins: spontaneous land resettlement and changing livelihoods in the Hurungwe District, Zimbabwe . Journal of Southern African Studies , 28 ( 3 ) : 551 – 573 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chimhowu , A. and Woodhouse , P. 2006 . Vernacular land markets in Sub-Saharan Africa . Journal of Agrarian Change , 6 ( 3 ) : 346 – 371 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cliffe , L. , Mpofu , J. and Munslow , B. 1980 . Nationalist politics in Zimbabwe: the 1980 elections and beyond . Review of African Political Economy , 18 : 44 – 67 .
   Google Scholar
• Coldham , S. 1993 . The Land Acquisition Act, 1992 of Zimbabwe . Journal of African Law , 37 ( 1 ) : 82 – 88 .
   Google Scholar
• Coldham , S. 2001 . Statute note: Land Acquisition Amendment Act, 2000 (Zimbabwe) . Journal of African Law , 45 ( 2 ) : 227 – 229 .
   Google Scholar
• Colin , J.-P. , Kouame , G. and Soro , D. 2007 . Outside the autochthon-migrant configuration: access to land, land conflicts and inter-ethnic relationships in a former pioneer area of lower Côte d'Ivoire . The Journal of Modern African Studies , 45 ( 1 ) : 33 – 59 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No. 17) Act (2005) (Act No. 5 of 2005), 14 September.
   Google Scholar
• Crook , R. 1997 . Winning coalitions and ethno-regional politics: the failure of the opposition in the 1990 and 1995 elections in Côte d'Ivoire . African Affairs , 96 ( 383 ) : 215 – 242 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dozon , J. P. 1985 . La société Bété , Paris : Karthala .
   Google Scholar
• Dozon , J. P. 2000 . La Côte d'Ivoire entre démocratie, nationalisme, et ethnonationalisme . Politique Africaine , 78 : 45 – 62 .
   Google Scholar
• Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) . 2000 . Country Profile 2000. Zimbabwe , London : EIU .
   Google Scholar
• Fauré , Y. 1993 . Democracy and realism: reflections on the case of Côte d'Ivoire . Africa , 63 ( 3 ) : 313 – 329 .
   Google Scholar
• Financial Gazette (2004) Farm evictions illegal and morally wrong, Financial Gazette, 14 October. Available at http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/oct14b_2004.html#link10 (accessed 6 March 2010).
   Google Scholar
• Gazetted Land (Consequential Provisions) Act . 2006 . Chapter 20:28 Act 8/2006
   Google Scholar
• Guma , L. 2009 . Over 29000 youth militia still being paid by the state . SW Radio Africa Zimbabwe News , 3 April. Available at http://www.swradioafrica.com/News030409/youth030409.htm (accessed 22 January 2010)
   Google Scholar
• Gyimah-Boadi , E. and Daddieh , C. 1999 . “ Economic reform and political liberalization in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire: a preliminary assessment and implications for nation-building ” . In State Building and Democratization in Africa , Edited by: Mengisteab , K. and Daddieh , C. 125 – 156 . Westport , CT : Praeger .
   Google Scholar
• Harold-Barry , D. 2004 . “ Chronology ” . In The Past is the Future , Edited by: Harold-Barry , D. 261 – 273 . Harare : Weaver Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hatchard , J. 2001 . Some lessons on constitution-making from Zimbabwe . Journal of African Law , 45 ( 2 ) : 210 – 216 .
   Google Scholar
• Human Rights Watch (HRW) . 2002 . Zimbabwe: Fast Track Land Reform in Zimbabwe , 14 1(A). Available at http://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/2002/zimbabwe/ (accessed 6 March 2010)
   Google Scholar
• Human Rights Watch (HRW) . 2003 . CI: Trapped Between Two Wars: Violence Against Civilians in Western Côte d'Ivoire , 15 14(A)
   Google Scholar
• International Crisis Group (ICG) (2002) Zimbabwe at the Crossroads: Transition or Conflict n.41 (Harare/Brussels: ICG).
   Google Scholar
• International Crisis Group (ICG) . 2003 . Côte d'Ivoire: the war is not yet over . Rapport Afrique n. 72. Brussels: International Crisis Group
   Google Scholar
• International Crisis Group (ICG) . 2004 . Blood and soil: land, politics and conflict prevention in Zimbabwe and South Africa . Africa Report n. 85. Brussels: International Crisis Group
   Google Scholar
• International Crisis Group (ICG) . 2005 . Côte d'Ivoire: les demi-mesures ne suffiront pas . Briefing Afrique n. 33. Brussels: International Crisis Group
   Google Scholar
• International Crisis Group (ICG) . 2006 . Côte d'Ivoire: augmenter la pression . Africa Report n. 40. Brussels: International Crisis Group
   Google Scholar
• International Crisis Group (ICG) . 2007 . Côte d'Ivoire: can the Ouagadougou agreement bring peace? . Africa Report n. 127. Brussels: International Crisis Group
   Google Scholar
• International Monetary Fund (IMF) . 2005 . International Financial Statistics Yearbook , Washington, DC : IMF .
   Google Scholar
• International Monetary Fund and International Development Association (IMF and IDA) . 2002 . Côte d'Ivoire: enhanced initiative for heavily indebted poor countries (HIPC) . 12 March. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund
   Google Scholar
• IRIN . 2008 . Zimbabwe: New Land Owners Face Eviction , 11 February. Available at http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76682 (accessed 22 January 2010)
   Google Scholar
• Juul , K. and Lund , C. 2002 . Negotiating Property in Africa , Edited by: Juul , K. and Lund , C. Portsmouth , NH : Heinemann .
   Google Scholar
• Klopp , J. 2002 . Can moral ethnicity trump political tribalism? The struggle for land and nation in Kenya . African Studies , 61 ( 2 ) : 269 – 294 .
   Google Scholar
• Koné, M. (2002) Gaining Rights of Access to Land in West-Centra Côte d'Ivoire (London: International Institute for Environment and Development).
   Google Scholar
• Koné , M. 2006 . Quelles lois pour résoudre les problèmes liés au foncier en Côte d'Ivoire? . Grain de Sel: Inter-réseaux développement rural , 36 ( September–November ) Available at www.inter-reseaux.org (accessed 20 January 2008)
   Google Scholar
• Kouamé , W. 2006 . Côte d'Ivoire: Tabou – Audiences Foraines: un sit-in de protestation devant la justice ce matin . Notre Voie , 18 July. Available at allafrica.com (accessed 15 and 19 July 2006)
   Google Scholar
• Kriger, N. (2003) Zimbabwe's Guerrilla Veterans: Symbolic and Political Violence, 1980–1987 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
   Google Scholar
• Kriger , N. 2005 . ZANU(PF) strategies in general elections, 1980–2000: discourse and coercion . African Affairs , 104 ( 414 ) : 1 – 34 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kriger , N. 2007 . Liberation from constitutional constraints: land reform in Zimbabwe . SAIS Review of International Affairs , 27 ( 2 ) : 63 – 76 .
   Google Scholar
• Lamb , C. 2007 . House of Stone: The True Story of a Family Divided in War-Torn Zimbabwe , Chicago : Lawrence Hill Books .
   Google Scholar
• Lewis , B. 1980 . “ Ethnicity and occupational specialization in the Ivory Coast: the Transporters’ Association ” . In Values, Identities, and National Integration , Edited by: Paden , J. N. 75 – 87 . Evanston : Northwestern University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lewis , B. Citizens or strangers: Ivoirian land law and the succession crisis . Paper presented at the Annual Meetings of the African Studies Association . 29 October–2 November , Boston , MA .
   Google Scholar
• Lynch , G. 2008 . Courting the Kalenjin: the failure of dynasticism and the strength of the ODM value in Kenya's Rift Valley Province . African Affairs , 107 ( 429 ) : 541 – 568 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall-Fratani , R. 2006 . The war of ‘who is who’: autochthony, nationalism, and citizenship in the Ivoirian crisis . African Studies Review , 49 ( 2 ) : 9 – 43 .
   Google Scholar
• McAuslan , P. 1998 . Making law work: restructuring land relations in Africa . Development and Change , 29 ( 3 ) : 525 – 552 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGreal , C. and MacAskill , E. 2002 . “ Mugabe victory leaves west's policy in tatters ” . In The Guardian UK 14 March. Available at http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2002/mar/14/zimbabwe.chrismcgreal (accessed 22 January 2010)
   Google Scholar
• Moyo , S. 1986 . “ The land question ” . In Zimbabwe. The Political Economy of Transition 1980–1986 , Edited by: Mandaza , I. 165 – 202 . Dakar , , Senegal : Codesria .
   Google Scholar
• Moyo , S. The interaction of market and compulsory land acquisition processes with social action in Zimbabwe's land reform . Paper presented at the SARIPS of the Sapes Trust Annual Colloquium on Regional Integration: Past, Present and Future, Harare Sheraton Hotel and Towers . Harare .
   Google Scholar
• Moyo , S. 2001 . The land occupation movement and democratisation in Zimbabwe: contradictions of neoliberalism . Millenium: Journal of International Studies , 30 ( 2 ) : 311 – 330 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moyo , S. and Yeros , P. 2005 . “ Land occupations and land reform in Zimbabwe. Towards the national democratic revolution ” . In Reclaiming the Land: The Resurgence of Rural Movements in Africa, Asia and Latin America , Edited by: Moyo , S. and Yeros , P. 165 – 208 . London : Zed Books .
   Google Scholar
• Moyo , S. and Yeros , P. 2007 . The radicalized state: Zimbabwe's interrupted revolution . Review of Political Economy , 34 ( 111 ) : 103 – 121 .
   Google Scholar
• Mumbengegwi , C. 1986 . “ Continuity and change in agricultural policy ” . In Zimbabwe. The Political Economy of Transition 1980–1986 , Edited by: Mandaza , I. 203 – 222 . Dakar , , Senegal : Codesria .
   Google Scholar
• Naldi , G. J. 1993 . Land reform in Zimbabwe: some legal aspects . Journal of Modern African Studies , 31 ( 4 ) : 585 – 600 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• N'Diaye , B. 2005 . “ Côte d'Ivoire: the miracle that wasn't, flawed civil–military relations, and missed opportunity ” . In Not Yet Democracy: West Africa's Slow Farewell to Authoritarianism , Edited by: N'Diaye , B. , Saine , A. and Houngnikpo , M. 19 – 50 . Durham : Carolina Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC), Internal Displacement Monitoring Center . 2009 . Whose land is this? Land disputes and forced displacement in the western forest area of Côte d'Ivoire . NRC, Geneva and Abidjan, October. Available at http://www.internal-displacement.org (accessed 15 December 2009)
   Google Scholar
• Nyambara , P. S. 2001 . The closing frontier: agrarian change, immigrants and the ‘squatter menace’ in Gokwe, 1980–1990s . Journal of Agrarian Change , 1 ( 4 ) : 534 – 549 .
   Google Scholar
• Nyambara , P. S. 2002 . Madheruka and Shangwe: Ethnic identities and the culture of modernity in Gokwe, Northwestern Zimbabwe, 1963–79 . Journal of African History , 43 ( 2 ) : 287 – 306 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oucho , J. O. 2002 . Undercurrents of Ethnic Conflict in Kenya , Leiden : Brill Academic .
   Google Scholar
• Ploch, L. (2009) Zimbabwe. CRS Report for Congress, 1 April, 7-5700, RL32723 (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service). Available at http://assets.opencrs.com/rpts/RL32723.20090401.pdf (accessed 6 March 2010).
   Google Scholar
• Raftopoulos , B. and Phimister , I. 2004 . Zimbabwe now: the political economy of crisis and coercion . Historical Materialism , 12 ( 4 ) : 355 – 382 .
   Google Scholar
• Ranger , T. 2004 . Nationalist historiography, patriotic history and the history of the nation: the struggle over the past in Zimbabwe . Journal of Southern African Studies , 30 ( 2 ) : 215 – 234 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reno , W. 1999 . Warlord Politics and African States , Boulder , CO : Lynne Rienner .
   Google Scholar
• Reuters . 2000 . Zimbabwe's Mugabe urges blacks to ‘strike fear in heart of white man’ . CNN.com , 14 December. Available at http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/africa/12/14/mugabe.zimbabwe/ (accessed 22 January 2010)
   Google Scholar
• Robinson , J. and Verdier , T. 2002 . The political economy of clientelism . Discussion Paper n. 3205, February. London: Center for Economic Policy Research (Public Policy Series)
   Google Scholar
• Sachikonye , L. M. 2003 . From ‘growth with equity’ to ‘fast-track’ reform: Zimbabwe's land question . Review of African Political Economy , 96 ( 30 ) : 227 – 240 .
   Google Scholar
• Scarnecchia , T. 2006 . The ‘fascist cycle’ in Zimbabwe, 2000–2005 . Journal of Southern African Studies , 32 ( 2 ) : 221 – 237 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scheuer , B. 2002 . La xénophobie submerge la Côte d'Ivoire . Prevention Genocides. Available at www.prevention-genocides.org/fr/campagne/textes/rapnov2000.pdf in January 2001 (accessed 15 December 2002)
   Google Scholar
• Schwartz , A. 2000 . Le conflit foncier entre Krou et Burkinabè: à la lumière de ‘l'institution krouman . Afrique Contemporaine , 193 ( 1 ) : 56 – 66 .
   Google Scholar
• Selby , A. 2006 . Commercial farmers and the state: interest group politics and land reform in Zimbabwe . PhD thesis in International Development, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
   Google Scholar
• Shaw , W. H. 2003 . ‘They stole our land’: debating the expropriation of white farms in Zimbabwe . Journal of Modern African Studies , 41 ( 1 ) : 75 – 89 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spierenburg , M. J. 2004 . Strangers, Spirits, and Land Reforms: Conflicts about Land in Dande, Northern Zimbabwe , Leiden and Boston , MA : Brill Academic .
   Google Scholar
• Stamm , V. 2000 . Rural land plan: an innovative approach from Côte d'Ivoire . Issue Paper n. 91. London: International Institute for Environment and Development
   Google Scholar
• Strozeski , J. 2006 . The role of land ownership in localized conflicts between Bété and Burkinabé households in the central western forest regions of Côte d'Ivoire . PhD dissertation. Washington, DC: Graduate School of Howard University, Department of African Studies (Political Science)
   Google Scholar
• Tayoro , P. D. 2006 . A propos des audiences foraines: Affi N'Guessan –‘Il faut les empêcher’ . Notre Voie , 14 July. Available at http://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200607140568.html (accessed 5 March 2010)
   Google Scholar
• The Herald . 2007 . Farmers without land offer letters get reprieve . The Herald , 12 January. Available at http://www.kubatana.net/html/archive/landr/070112herald2.asp?sector=LANDR&year=2007&range_start=1 (accessed 22 January 2010)
   Google Scholar
• Toulmin , C. and Quan , J. 2000 . “ Registering customary rights ” . In Evolving Land Rights, Policy and Tenure in Africa , Edited by: Toulmin , C. and Quan , J. 209 – 212 . London : DFID/IIED/NRI .
   Google Scholar
• United Nations Development Program (UNDP) . 2002 . Zimbabwe. Land reform and resettlement: assessment and suggested framework for the future . Interim Mission Report. UNDP
   Google Scholar
• ‘Utete Report’ . 2003 . Report of Presidential Land Review Committee on the implementation of the fast track land reform programme, 2000–2002 . Government of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe
   Google Scholar
• Van de Walle , N. 2001 . African Economies and the Politics of Permanent Crisis, 1979–1999 , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Whitaker , B. E. 2005 . Citizens and foreigners: democratization and the politics of exclusion in Africa . African Studies Review , 48 ( 1 ) : 109 – 126 .
   Google Scholar
• Woods , D. 2003 . The tragedy of the cocoa-pod: rent-seeking, land, and ethnic conflict in Ivory Coast . Journal of Modern African Studies , 41 ( 1 ) : 641 – 656 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xinhua News Agency . 2000 . Zimbabwean ruling party unveils election manifesto . 23 March. Available at http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/march23.html (accessed 22 January 2010)
   Google Scholar
• Yevou , M. 2006 . Banny aux membres de la CEI [Commission Electorale Indépendante]: laissez les fanions de vos partis dehors . Fraternité Matin , 6 March. Available at allafrica.com (accessed 8 March 2006)
   Google Scholar
• Zimbabwe Human Rights (ZHR) NGO Forum . 2002 . Human rights and Zimbabwe's presidential election: March 2002 . Special Report (Harare: ZHR NGO Forum). Available at http://www.hrforumzim.com/frames/inside_frame_special.htm (accessed 6 March 2010)
   Google Scholar
• Zimbabwe Human Rights (ZHR) NGO Forum and the Justice for Agriculture Trust . 2007 . Adding insult to injury . A preliminary report on human rights violations on commercial farms, 2000 to 2005. Harare: ZHR NGO Forum & JAG Trust
   Google Scholar
• Zindi , E. 2008 . Mutasa warns white farmers . Justice for Agriculture – PR Communique, 7 April
   Google Scholar