References
- Wolf, Arthur , 1974. "Gods, Ghosts, and Ancestors". In: Wolf, Arthur , , ed. Religion and Ritual in Chinese Society . Stanford: Stanford University Press; 1974, in, And, as Duara also points out here, since village elites were closely tied to religious leadership in their communities, a weakening of religious sanctions could weaken the elites. The problem with this approach to popular culture, as always, is that it provides no clues to how the peasants themselves interpreted the changes at issue. The potential for religiously based popular rebellion was latent not merely in those sects the state labeled heterodox but in cults that it tolerated as well., Schools might in the end have proved their worth. Modern schools in rural China not only cost more than the traditional village Confucian teacher, if there was one, but the education they provided, with its curriculum oriented toward preparation for Western-style secondary education, may have seemed even less useful to most peasants..
- Huang, Philip , 1985. The Peasant Economy and Social Change in North China . Stanford: Stanford University Press; 1985, Huang discusses economic involution in the north China plain, focusing on a particular form of peasant immiseration he considers semiproletarianization. He discusses the role of the state (pp. 219–91) and village-state relations (see esp. pp. 275–91).
- Skoçpol, Theda , 1979. States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1979. pp. 41–41, See pp. 67–80 for the long-term structural weaknesses of the late Qing.
- 1978–79. Jones, Susan Mann , , ed. Select Papers from the Center for Far Eastern Studies . Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 1978–79. pp. 218–275, no. 3.
- Esherick, Joseph , 1987. The Origins of the Boxer Uprising . Berkeley: University of California Press; 1987. pp. 68–95, clearly demonstrates that exogenous pressures as well as direct anti-imperialism were two of the several factors that worked to produce the Boxers in Shandong. But of course its origins do not entirely explain the movement's phenomenal growth.
- Perry, Elizabeth , 1980. Rebels and Revolutionaries in North China, 1845–1945 . Stanford: Stanford University Press; 1980. pp. 62–74, Alitto, “Rural Elites,” pp. 258–59, challenges this dichotomy as applied to the twentieth century, arguing that “extreme vertical mobility” resulted in people of various social categories jumping back and forth between the two strategies.
- Hobsbawm, E.J. , 1969. Bandits . England: Har-mondsworth, {cxEngland}; 1969, Anton Blok's critique, “The Peasant and the Brigand: Social Banditry Reconsidered,” Comparative Studies in Society and History vol. 14, no. 4 (Sept. 1972), pp. 494–503; and Hobsbawm's “Reply” in same, pp. 503–5. [See also Cheah Boon Kheng, “Hobsbawm's Social Banditry, Myth and Historical Reality: A Case in the Malaysian State of Kedah, 1915–1920,” Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, vol. 17, no. 4 (Oct.-Dec. 1985), pp. 34–51.].
- Bandits . pp. 226–227, again, Billingsley takes a moderate approach: “Though bandits were not the hopeless social rejects that many arrogant, urban-educated revolutionaries considered them, neither were they the natural revolutionaries they often appeared to be to more sanguine militants” (p. 230).
- Meisner, Maurice , 1967. Li Ta-chao and the Origins of Chinese Marxism . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1967, and Benjamin I. Schwartz, Chinese Communism and the Rise of Mao (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1951), which, coming out of a debate with Cold War studies emphasizing the rise of Chinese communism as spread from the Soviet Union, cited indigenous sources and developments. Although Chinese historians are coming to a new understanding of the origins of Chinese communism, Dirlik is also critical of much of the work of SimaLu, Ding Shouhe, and Li Xin.
- Scalapino, Robert , and Yu, George , 1961. The Chinese Anarchist Movement . Berkeley: Center for Chinese Studies, University of California; 1961, See also Peter Zarrow, Anarchism and Chinese Political Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).
- Dirlik, Arif , 1985. "The New Culture Movement Revisited: Anarchism and the Idea of Social Revolution in New Culture Thinking". In: Modern China . Vol. 11. 1985. pp. 251–300, and “Vision and Revolution: Anarchism in Chinese Revolutionary Thought on the Eve of the 1911 Revolution,” Modern China 12 (Apr. 1986), pp. 121–61; and Arif Dirlik and Edward Krebs, “Socialism and Anarchism in Early Republican China,” Modern China 7 (Apr. 1981), pp. 117–51. However, it is puzzling why some of this material is not incorporated more fully here. Does Dirlik consider pre-1919 socialisms marginal? But it is the prevailing anarchist mood, he feels, which determined much of the way radical intellectuals began to accept Marxism.
- Furth, Charlotte , 1983. "Intellectual Change: From the Reform Movement to the May Fourth Movement, 1895–1920". In: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 12. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; 1983. pp. 402–402.
- Schwarcz, Vera , 1987. "Out of Historical Amnesia: An Eclectic and Nearly Forgotten Chinese Communist in Europe". In: Modern China . Vol. 13. 1987. pp. 177–225, for a discussion of Zhang Shenfu's relations with the CCP.