Development and rural women in South Asia: The limits of empowerment and conscientization

References

• Momsen, Janet Henshall , 1991. Women and Development in the Third World . London and New York: Routledge; 1991. pp. 2–2.
   Google Scholar
• Boserup's, Ester , 1970. Women's Role in Economic Development . London: George Allen and Unwin; 1970.
   Google Scholar
• 1989. Global Survey of the Role of Women in Development . New York: United Nations; 1989. pp. 5–5.
   Google Scholar
• Jahan, Ronnaq , 1995. Mainstreaming Women in Development: The Elusive Agenda . London: Zed Books; 1995. pp. 2–2.
   Google Scholar
• 1994. Braidotti, R. , , eds. Women, the Environment and Sustainable Development: Towards a Theoretical Synthesis . London: Zed Books; 1994.
   Google Scholar
• Cain, M. , Khanam, S. R. , and Nahar, S. , 1979. Class, Patriarchy and Women's Work in Bangladesh , Population and Development Review 5 (1979), pp. 405–438.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chowdhury, Aditee Nag , 1990. Let Grassroots Speak: People's Participation, Self-Help Groups and NGOs in Bangladesh . Dhaka: University Press; 1990.
   Google Scholar
• 1995. Harcourt, Wendy , ed. Feminist Perspectives on Sustainable Development . London: Zed Books; 1995.
   Google Scholar
• Jahan, Rounaq , 1995. The Elusive Agenda: Mainstreaming Women in Development . London: Zed Books; 1995.
   Google Scholar
• 1979. Jahan, Rounaq , and Papanek, Hanna , eds. Women and Development:Perspectives from South and Southeast Asia . Dhaka: Bangladesh Institute of Law and International Affairs; 1979.
   Google Scholar
• Kabeer, Naila , 1988. Subordination and Struggle: Women in Bangladesh , New Left Review 168 (1988), pp. 95–121.
   Google Scholar
• Kabeer, Naila , 1995. Reversed Realities: Gender Hierarchies in Development Thought . New Delhi: Kali for Women; 1995.
   Google Scholar
• Ram, Kalpana , 1991. Mukkuvar Women: Gender, Hegemony, and Capitalist Transformation in a South Indian Fishing Community . Sydney: Allen and Unwin; London: Zed Press; 1991.
   Google Scholar
• Risseeuw, Carla , 1988. The Fish Don't Talk about the Water: Gender Transformation, Power and Resistance among Women in Sri Lanka . Leiden, New York: E.J. Brill; 1988.
   Google Scholar
• Rogers, Barbara , 1980. Domestication of Women: Discrimination in Developing Societies . London: Tavistock; 1980.
   Google Scholar
• Rozario, Santi , 1992. Purity and Communal Boundaries: Women and Social Change in a Bangladeshi Village . London: Zed Books; Sydney; Allen and Unwin; 1992.
   Google Scholar
• Westergaard, K. , 1983. Pauperization and Rural Women in Bangladesh:A Case Study . Comilla, Bangladesh: BARD; 1983.
   Google Scholar
• White, Sarah , 1992. Arguing with the Crocodile: Gender and Class in Bangladesh . Dhaka: University Press Ltd.; 1992.
   Google Scholar
• Solomon, Barbara , 1976. Black Empowerment: Social Work in Oppressed Communities . New York: Columbia University Press; 1976.
   Google Scholar
• Black Empowerment: Social Work in Oppressed Communities, pp. 12–12.
   Google Scholar
• Black Empowerment: Social Work in Oppressed Communities, pp. 19–19.
   Google Scholar
• Black Empowerment: Social Work in Oppressed Communities.
   Google Scholar
• Black Empowerment: Social Work in Oppressed Communities, pp. 21–21.
   Google Scholar
• Rahnema, Majid , 1995. "Participation". In: Sachs, Wolfgang , ed. The Development Dictionary . Johannesburg, London: Zed Books; 1995. pp. 122–122, in.
   Google Scholar
• The Development Dictionary, pp. 123–123.
   Google Scholar
• Bystydzienski, Jill M. , 1992. Women Transforming Politics: Worldwide Strategies for Empowerment . Bloomington: Indiana University Press; 1992. pp. 3–3.
   Google Scholar
• Women Transforming Politics: Worldwide Strategies for Empowerment, pp. 3–4.
   Google Scholar
• Shor, Ira , and Freire, Paulo , 1987. A Pedagogy for Liberation . New York: Bergin and Garvey; 1987. pp. 108–109, Emphasis in original.
   Google Scholar
• Davis, Rex , 1980. "Education for Awareness: A Talk with Paulo Freire". In: Mackie, Robert , ed. Literacy and Revolution: The Pedagogy of Paulo Freire . London: Pluto Press; 1980. pp. 57–57, in.
   Google Scholar
• Freire, Paulo , 1985. McLaren, Peter , and Leonard, Peter , eds. The Politics of Education: Culture, Power, and Liberation . South Hadley, Mass.: Bergin and Garvey; 1985. pp. 169–169, Freire, consistent with this position, showed a notable willingness to modify and transform his views in response to the ongoing social and political struggle. His willingness to engage positively with feminist critiques of his early work is a case in point. See, Paulo Freire: A Critical Encounter (London and New York: Routledge, 1993), Kathleen Weiler, “Freire and a Feminist Pedagogy of Difference,” in Politics of Liberation: Paths from Freire, ed. Peter McLaren and Colin Lankshear (London and New York: Routledge, 1994); Jeanne Brady, “Critical Literacy, Feminism, and a Politics of Representation,” in McLaren and Lankshear, Politics of Liberation.
   Google Scholar
• Shor, Ira , Education Is Politics: Paulo Freire's Critical Pedagogy , Paulo Freire, pp. 28–28, in McLaren and Leonard.
   Google Scholar
• Sen, Gita , and Grown, Caren , 1987. Development, Crises and Alternative Visions: Third World Women's Perspectives . London: Earthscan; 1987. pp. 89–89, for Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era (DAWN), ff. Sen and Grown do not mention Freire directly in this document, however.
   Google Scholar
• Rozario, Santi , 1992. Purity and Communal Boundaries: Women and Social Change in a Bangladeshi Village . London, Sydney: Allen and Unwin; 1992, Sarah C. White, Arguing with the Crocodile: Gender and Class in Bangladesh (Dhaka: University Press, 1992); and K. Westergaard, Pauperization and Rural Women in Bangladesh: A Case Study (Comilla, Bangladesh: BARD, 1983).
   Google Scholar
• Mizan, Ainon Nahar , 1994. In Quest of Empowerment: The Grameen Bank's Impact on Women's Power and Status . Dhaka: University Press; 1994, Susan Holcombe, Managing to Empower: The Grameen Bank's Experience of Poverty Alleviation, London: Zed Books, 1995.
   Google Scholar
• Marshall, Ken , 1989. "Bankers in Bangladesh: Giving Credit Where Credit Is Due". In: Carr, Marilyn , ed. The Barefoot Book: Economically Appropriate Services for the Rural Poor . London: Intermediate Technology Publications; 1989. pp. 39–39, in.
   Google Scholar
• The Barefoot Book: Economically Appropriate Services for the Rural Poor .
   Google Scholar
• Mizan, , In Quest of Empowerment, pp. 18–18.
   Google Scholar
• Hashmi, Taj I. , 1997. NGOs, Grameen Bank and Empowerment of Rural Women in Bangladesh . Presented at Bangladesh: Democracy and Development. Melbourne, Australia, March, paper presented at the, Conference.
   Google Scholar
• Holcombe, , Managing to Empower.
   Google Scholar
• Managing to Empower, See also Mizan, In Quest of Empowerment, Pieter Streefland, et al., Different Ways to Support the Rural Poor: Effects of Two Development Approaches in Bangladesh (Dhaka: Centre for Social Studies, Dhaka University, 1986); Pieter Streefland et al., “Credit and Conscien-tization: Effects of Different Development Approaches in Bangladesh,” Public Administration and Development 13 (1993): 153-169.
   Google Scholar
• Kabeer, , Reversed Realities, pp. 248–248.
   Google Scholar
• Reversed Realities, pp. 257–257.
   Google Scholar
• Chowdhury, Aditee Nag , 1990. Let Grassroots Speak: People's Participation, Self-Help Groups and NGOs in Bangladesh . Dhaka: University Press; 1990. pp. 20–20.
   Google Scholar
• Chowdhury, , 1991. Neelsen, John , ed. Let Grassroots Speak . New Delhi: Manohar; 1991, Michael Nebelung, “Obstacles to Social Mobilisation in Rural Bangladesh: Social and Economic Mobility of Landless Peasants through NGO Interventions,” in Gender, Caste and Power in South Asia: Social Status and Mobility in a Transitional Society, Bosse Kramsjo and Geoffrey D. Wood's recent study of Proshika may be worth consulting, but its uncritical approach limits its usefulness: Breaking the Chains: Collective Action for Social Justice among the Rural Poor of Bangladesh (Dhaka: University Press, 1992).
   Google Scholar
• Rao, Aruna , and Kelleher, David , 1995. Engendering Organizational Change: The BRAC Case , IDS Bulletin 26 (3) (1995), pp. 69–69.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IDS Bulletin 26, .
   Google Scholar
• Chowdhury, , Let Grassroots Speak, pp. 67–67.
   Google Scholar
• Let Grassroots Speak, pp. 68–68.
   Google Scholar
• Let Grassroots Speak, pp. 71–71.
   Google Scholar
• Let Grassroots Speak, pp. 112–112.
   Google Scholar
• Kramsjo, , and Wood, , Breaking the Chains, pp. 29–30.
   Google Scholar
• Chowdhury, , Let Grassroots Speak, pp. 173–173.
   Google Scholar
• Let Grassroots Speak.
   Google Scholar
• Kabeer, , Reversed Realities.
   Google Scholar
• Kramsjo, , and Wood, , Breaking the Chains, Popular theatre (jatra) is not new in Bangladesh, but its use as a tool to deal with social injustice is quite new.
   Google Scholar
• Chowdhury, , Let Grassroots Speak, pp. 203–203.
   Google Scholar
• Rozario, , Purity and Communal Boundaries.
   Google Scholar
• White, , Arguing with the Crocodile, pp. 25–25.
   Google Scholar
• Kabeer, , Reversed Realities, pp. 229–229.
   Google Scholar
• Chen, Martha , 1983. A Quiet Revolution: Women in Transition in Rural Bangladesh . Cambridge: Schenkman Publishing; 1983.
   Google Scholar
• A Quiet Revolution: Women in Transition in Rural Bangladesh . pp. 195–204.
   Google Scholar
• Westergaard, K. , 1996. People's Empowerment in Bangladesh: NGO Strategies , Journal of Social Studies (Dhaka) (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Chowdhury, , Let Grassroots Speak, pp. 109–109.
   Google Scholar
• Nebulung, , Obstacles to Social Mobilisation in Rural Bangladesh, pp. 276–276.
   Google Scholar
• Hashmi, , NGOs, Grameen Bank and Empowerment of Rural Women in Bangladesh , Pauperization, pp. 15–15, Westergaard, In earlier research in a Bangladeshi village that had access to loans from the Bangladesh Rural Development Bank, I observed that most loans taken out by women were used by their husbands. Indeed the husbands were getting their wives to take the loans. Often these husbands would interfere directly in the loan distribution process. (See Rozario, Purity and Communal Boundaries). One can imagine some of these problems to be characteristic of the credit given by the NGOs too, despite their efforts to target poor women.
   Google Scholar
• Westergaard, , People's Empowerment in Bangladesh.
   Google Scholar
• http://www.foundation.novartis.com/un-derdev.html, Novartis Foundation (formerly Ciba-Geigy Foundation for Cooperation with Developing Countries), “The Political Economy of Rural Underdevelopment, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Hours, Bernard , and Huq, S. M. Imamul , 1995. Islam and Development in Bangladesh . Dhaka: Centre for Social Studies; 1995. pp. 131–131, trans.
   Google Scholar
• Chowdhury, , Let Grassroots Speak, pp. 109–110.
   Google Scholar
• Sobhan, Rehman , 1990. "The Nature and Scope of a Self-Reliant Development Strategy for Bangladesh". In: Norbye, Ole David Koht , ed. Bangladesh Faces the Future . Dhaka: University Press; 1990. pp. 244–244, in.
   Google Scholar
• Hours, , Islam and Development, pp. 125–125.
   Google Scholar
• http://nlu.nl.edu/ace/Resources/Documents/FreireIssues.html, Tom Heaney, “Issues in Freirean Pedagogy”, 20 June 1995.
   Google Scholar
• Braidotti, R. , 1994. "Alternative Development". In: Braidotti, R. , , eds. Women, the Environment and Sustainable Development: Towards a Theoretical Synthesis . London: Zed Books; 1994. pp. 117–117, in.
   Google Scholar
• Freire, , Politics of Education, pp. 160–160.
   Google Scholar
• Politics of Education, pp. 160–161.
   Google Scholar
• Ackerley, Brooke , 1995. Testing the Tools ofDevelopment CreditProgrammes, Loan Involvement, and Women's Empowerment , IDS Bulletin 26 (3) (1995), pp. 56–68, points out that for BRAC and the Grameen Bank empowerment of women is subordinated to the goals of empow-erment of the poor, It is perhaps understandable that poor peasants and poor rural women take what material advantage they can from NGO programs. When the NGO withdraws, they know that they will be left to deal with the village leaders as before, and so they cannot afford to alienate them.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Risseeuw, Carla , 1988. The Fish Don ‘t Talk about the Water: Gender Transformation, Power and Resistance among Women in Sri Lanka . Leiden, New York: E. J. Brill; 1988, Chetna Gala, “Empowering Women in Villages: All-Women Village Councils in Maharashtra, India,” Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 29, no. 2 (April-June 1997): 31-45.
   Google Scholar