References
- Beek, Jan. 2019. “Travelling Multi‐level Marketing Schemes and Whispers of Fraud in Kenya.” Social Anthropology/Anthropologie Sociale 27 (3): 501–516. doi:10.1111/1469-8676.12676.
- Biggart, Nicole W. 1989. Charismatic Capitalism. Chicago: University of Chicago.
- Blumer, Herbert. 1969. Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method. New Jersey: PrenticeHall, Inc.
- Bosley, Stacie A., Sarah Greenman, and Samantha Snyder. 2020. “Voluntary Disclosure and Earnings Expectations in Multi‐level Marketing.” Economic inquiry 58 (4): 1643–1662. doi:10.1111/ecin.12840.
- Bromley, David G. 1998. “Transformative Movements and Quasi-Religious Corporations: The Case of Amway.” In Sacred Companies: Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organizations, edited by N.J. Demerath, Peter Dobkin Hall, Terry Schmitt, and Rhys H. Williams, 349–363. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Burch, Jessica K. 2016. “‘Soap and Hope’: Direct Sales and the Culture of Work and Capitalism in Postwar America.” Enterprise & Society 17 (04): 741–751. doi:10.1017/eso.2016.71.
- Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2021. “Women in the Labor Force: A Databook.” Retrieved on April 30, 2022. https://www.bls.gov/opub/reports/womens-databook/2020/home.htm
- Cahn, Peter S. 2008. “Consuming Class: Multilevel Marketers in Neoliberal Mexico.” Cultural Anthropology 23 (3): 429–452. doi:10.1111/j.1548-1360.2008.00014.x.
- Candace, West, and Don H. Zimmerman. 1987. “Doing Gender.” Gender & Society 1 (2): 125–151. doi:10.1177/0891243287001002002.
- Casanova, Erynn Masi. 2011. “Multiplying Themselves: Women Cosmetics Sellers in Ecuador.” Feminist Economics 17 (2): 1–29. doi:10.1080/13545701.2011.568419.
- Clarke, Alison J. 1999. Tupperware: The Promise of Plastic in 1950s America. Washington & London: Smithsonian Institution Press.
- Collins, Patricia Hill. 2000. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness and the Politics of Empowerment. London: HarperCollins.
- Cooley, Charles H. 1902. Human Nature and the Social Order. New York: Scribner.
- Crenshaw, Kimberle. 1989. “Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex.” The university of Chicago Legal Forum 1989: 139–167.
- D’antonio, Virginia. 2019. “From Tupperware to Scentsy: The Gendered Culture of Women and Direct Sales.” Sociology Compass 12 (5): e12692. doi:10.1111/soc4.12692.
- DeLiema, Marguerite, Doug Shadel, Amy Nofziger, and Karla Pak. 2018. “AARP Study of Multilevel Marketing: Profiling Participants and Their Experiences in Direct Sales,” AARP. Retrieved from https://www.aarp.org/content/dam/aarp/aarp_foundation/2018/pdf/AARP%20Foundation%20MLM%20Research%20Study%20Report%2010.8.18.pdf.
- de Marneffe, Daphne. 2004. On Children, Love, and the Inner Life. Boston: Little, Brown & Company.
- Direct Selling Association. 2022. Direct Selling in the United States: 2021 Industry Overview. Retrieved August 26, 2022 (https://www.dsa.org/docs/default-source/industry-fact-sheets/dsa-2021g-ofactsheetv3.pdf?sfvrsn=51c6d6a5_3%27).
- Duffy, Brooke Erin. 2015. “The Romance of Work: Gender and Aspirational Labor in the Digital Culture Industries.” International Journal of Cultural Studies 19 (4): 441–457. doi:10.1177/1367877915572186.
- Duffy, Brooke Erin, and Emily Hund. 2015. “‘Having It All’ on Social Media: Entrepreneurial Femininity and Self-Branding Among Fashion Bloggers.” Social Media + Society 1 (2): 1–17. doi:10.1177/2056305115604337.
- Duffy, Brooke Erin, and Urszula Pruchniewska. 2017. “Gender and Self-Enterprise in the Social Media Age: A Digital Double Bind.” Information, Information, Communication & Society 20 (6): 843–859. doi:10.1080/1369118X.2017.1291703.
- Duffy, Brooke Erin, and Becca Schwartz. 2018. “Digital “Women’s Work?”: Job Recruitment Ads and the Feminization of Social Media Employment.” New Media & Society 20 (8): 2972–2989. doi:10.1177/1461444817738237.
- Federal Trade Commission v. BurnLounge, Inc. 2014. “Appeal from the United States District Court for the Central District of California.” United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, 12-55926, 12-56197, and 12-56228
- Frederico, Krista. 2015. “Entry-Level Expertise: Exclusive Knowledge as an Obscurant of Direct Sales Organization Exploitation.” Paper presented at the American Sociological Association Conference, August 23, Chicago, IL.
- Friedan, Betty. 1963. The Feminine Mystique. New York City: W. W. Norton.
- Friedman, Walter A. 2004. Birth of a Salesman: The Transformation of Selling in America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
- Garey, Anita. 1999. Weaving Work & Motherhood. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
- Garner, Jennifer. 2021. “Welcome to Thirty-One Gifts.” Retrieved February 1, 2021 https://www.mythirtyone.com/us/en/jennifergarner/info/consultant/aboutme.
- Gig Economy Data Hub. 2021. “How Many Gig Workers are There?” Accessed March 5, 2020. https://www.gigeconomydata.org/basics/how-many-gig-workers-are-there.
- Gill, Rosalind. 2008. “Culture and Subjectivity in Neoliberal and Postfeminist Times.” Subjectivity 25 (1): 432–445. doi:10.1057/sub.2008.28.
- Gill, Rosalind. 2014. “Unspeakable Inequalities: Post Feminism, Entrepreneurial Subjectivity, and the Repudiation of Sexism Among Cultural Workers.” Social Politics 21 (4): 509–528. doi:10.1093/sp/jxu016.
- Glenn, Evelyn Nakano. 1992. “From Servitude to Service Work: Historical Continuities in the Racial Division of Paid Reproductive Labor.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 18 (1): 1–43. doi:10.1086/494777.
- Green, Venus. 2001. Race on the Line. Durham: Duke University Press.
- Gressin, Seena. 2020. “FTC Settlement Ends AdvoCare’s Alleged Pyramid Scheme and Bans Defendants from Multi-Level Marketing.” Retrieved February 1, 2021 https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/blogs/business-blog/2019/10/ftc-settlement-ends-advocares-alleged-pyramid-scheme-bans.
- Groß, Claudia. 2010. “Spiritual Cleansing: A Case Study on How Spirituality Can Be Mis/Used by a Company.” management revue 21 (1): 60–81. doi:10.5771/0935-9915-2010-1-60.
- Harris, Deborah A., and Patti Giuffre. 2015. Taking the Heat. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
- Hays, Sharon. 1996. The Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood. New Haven: Yale University Press.
- Heggeness, Misty L., Jason Fields, Yazmin A. García Trejo, and Anthony Schulzetenberg. March 3, 2021. “Tracking Job Losses for Mothers of School-Age Children During a Health Crisis.” Retrieved February 20, 2022 https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2021/03/moms-work-and-the-pandemic.html.
- Hochschild, Arlie R. 1983. The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Hodges, Leslie. 2020. “Do Female Occupations Pay Less but Offer More Benefits?” Gender & Society 34 (3): 381–412. doi:10.1177/0891243220913527.
- Hyperwallet. 2017. “The Future of Gig Work is Female.” Retrieved April 1, 2021. https://tinyurl.com/y5sl32fu.
- In Advertising, Truth. 2019. “LuLaroe Distributors in Bankruptcy as Founder Touts Financial Freedom.” Retrieved April 1, 2021. https://www.truthinadvertising.org/lularoe-distributors-face-bankruptcy-as-founder-touts-financial-freedom/.
- Jones, Allie. 2019. “Uh, Am I Paying My Bff’s Salary?” Cosmopolitan 267 (1): 40–41.
- Keep, William. 2020. “The Decline of Multi-Level Marketing in the United States by the Numbers.” Retrieved April 1, 2021 https://seekingalpha.com/article/4394496-decline-of-multi-level-marketing-in-united-states-numbers.
- Keep, William W., and Peter J. Vander Nat. 2014. “Multilevel Marketing and Pyramid Schemes in the United States: An Historical Analysis.” Journal of Historical Research in Marketing 6 (2): 188–210. doi:10.1108/JHRM-01-2014-0002.
- Kieffer, Kira Ganga. 2020. “Manifesting Millions: How Women’s Spiritual Entrepreneurship Genders Capitalism.” Nova Religio 24 (2): 80–104. doi:10.1525/nr.2020.24.2.80.
- Koehn, Daryl. 2001. “Ethical Issues Connected with Multi-Level Marketing Schemes.” Journal of Business Ethics 29 (1/2): 153–160. doi:10.1023/A:1006463430130.
- Lamoreaux, Tiffany. 2013. Home is Where the Work Is: Women, Direct Sales, and Technologies of Gender. Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ. Unpublished Dissertation, Arizona State University. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/79566618.pdf.
- Lan, Pei-Chia. 2002. “Networking Capitalism: Network Construction and Control Effects in Direct Selling.” The Sociological Quarterly 43 (2): 165–184. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2002.tb00045.x.
- Levy, Sara G. 2019. “The Insidious Way ‘Health Coaches’ are Targeting New Moms on Instagram.” Glamour. April 2. Retrieved August 1, 2019. https://www.glamour.com/story/health-coaches-targeting-new-moms-on-instagram-body-shaming
- Lewis, Amanda E. 2004. “‘What Group?’ Studying Whites and Whiteness in the Era of ‘Color-Blindness.” Sociological Theory 22 (4): 623–646. doi:10.1111/j.0735-2751.2004.00237.x.
- Lieber, Chavie. 2019. “More Than 100 LuLaroe Sellers Have Filed for Bankruptcy.” Vox, April 30. Retrieved August 5, 2020 https://www.vox.com/the-goods/2019/4/30/18524356/lularoe-sellers-bankruptcy-mlm.
- Luca, Nathalie. 2011. “Multi-Level Marketing: At the Crossroads of Economy and Religion.” In The Economics of Religion: Anthropological Approaches (Research in Economic Anthropology, edited by Lionel Obadia and Donald C. Wood, 217–239. Vol. 31. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
- Luhr, Sigrid. 2020. “Signaling Parenthood: Managing the Motherhood Penalty and Fatherhood Premium in the U.S. Service Sector.” Gender & Society 34 (2): 259–283. doi:10.1177/0891243220905814.
- Martin Patricia, Yancey. 2003. “‘Said and Done’ versus ‘Saying and Doing’: Gendering Practices, Practicing Gender at Work.” Gender & Society 17 (3): 342–366. doi:10.1177/0891243203017003002.
- McRobbie, Angela. 2009. The Aftermath of Feminism: Gender, Culture and Social Change. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Mead, George H. 1934. Mind, Self, and Society from the Standpoint of a Social Behaviorist. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- Mullaney, Jamie L., and Janet Hinson Shope. 2012. Paid to Party. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
- Phillips, Noah J. 2020. “Keynote Remarks of Commissioner Phillips at the DSA Legal & Regulatory Summit.” Retrieved February 1, 2020. https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/public_statements/1581726/phillips_-_dsa_remarks_10-15-20.pdf.
- Polletta, Francesca, Pang Ching Bobby Chen, Beth Gharrity Gardner, and Alice Motes. 2011. “The Sociology of Storytelling.” Annual Review of Sociology 37 (1): 109–130. doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-081309-150106.
- Pratt, Michael G. 2000. “The Good, the Bad, and the Ambivalent: Managing Identification Among Amway Distributors.” Administrative Science Quarterly 45 (3): 456–493. doi:10.2307/2667106.
- Pratt, Michaels G., and Jose’ Antonio Rosa. 2003. “Transforming Work-Family Conflict into Commitment in Network Marketing.” Academy of Management Journal 46 (4): 395–418. doi:10.2307/30040635.
- Ramirez, Edith. 2016. “Keynote Remarks of FTC Chairwoman Ramirez, DSA Business & Policy Conference.” Retrieved February 1, 2021. https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/public_statements/993473/ramirez_-_dsa_speech_10-25-16.pdf.
- Rees, Mallory E. 2021. “Selling the Ability to ‘Have It All’: How Direct Selling Organizations Exploit Intensive Mothering Ideologies.” Social problems 00: 1–17. doi:10.1093/socpro/spab042.
- Richards, Laura. 2019. “How MLMs – Multilevel Marketing Schemes – are Hurting Female Friendships.” The Washington Post, January 21. Retrieved August 1, 2019 https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2019/01/21/how-mlms-are-hurting-female-friendships.
- Risman, Barbara J. 2004. “Gender as a Social Structure: Theory Wrestling with Activism.” Gender & Society 18 (4): 429–450. doi:10.1177/0891243204265349.
- Schweingruber, David. 2006. “Success Through a Positive Mental Attitude? The Role of Positive Thinking in Door-To-Door Sales.” The Sociological Quarterly 47 (1): 41–68. x. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2006.00037.
- Stacie, Bosley, and Kim K. McKeage. 2015. “Multilevel Marketing Diffusion and the Risk of Pyramid Scheme Activity: The Case of Fortune Hi-Tech Marketing in Montana.” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 34 (1): 84–102. doi:10.1509/jppm.13.086.
- Suddath, Claire. 2018. “Thousands of Women Say LuLaRoe’s Legging Empire Is a Scam.” Bloomberg Businessweek, April 27. Retrieved May 15, 2021 https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2018-04-27/thousands-of-women-say-lularoe-s-legging-empire-is-a-scam.
- Taylor, Stephanie. 2015. “A New Mystique? Working for Yourself in the Neoliberal Economy.” The Sociological Review 63 (S1): 174–187. doi:10.1111/1467-954X.12248.
- Truth in Advertising. 2020. “MLMS Continue to Break the Law Despite FTC Warning.” Retrieved February 1, 2021 https://www.truthinadvertising.org/mlms-continue-to-break-the-law-despite-ftc-warning/.
- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2016. Planning for Adoption: Knowing the Costs and Resources. Washington, DC: Children’s Bureau.
- U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. 2013. “Beware of Pyramid Schemes Posing as Multi-Level Marketing Programs.” Retrieved May 1, 2021 https://www.sec.gov/oiea/investor-alerts-bulletins/investor-alerts-ia_pyramidhtm.html.
- Vander Nat, Peter. 2020. “MLM Income Disclosures: When Average Does Not Equal Typical.” Truth in Advertising. Retrieved May 1, 2021 https://www.truthinadvertising.org/mlm-income-disclosures-when-average-does-not-equal-typical/.
- Vincent, Susan. 2003. “Preserving Domesticity: Reading Tupperware in Women’s Changing Domestic, Social and Economic Roles.” Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue Canadienne de Sociologie 40 (2): 171–196. doi:10.1111/j.1755-618X.2003.tb00242.x.
- Wilkins, Amy C. 2008. “‘Happier Than Non-Christians’: Collective Emotions and Symbolic Boundaries Among Evangelical Christians.” Social Psychology Quarterly 71 (3): 281–301. doi:10.1177/019027250807100308.
- Williams, L. Susan, and Michelle Bemiller. 2011. Women at Work: Tupperware, Passion Parties, and Beyond. Boulder: L. Rienner Publishers, Inc.
- Wilson, Ara. 1999. “The Empire of Direct Sales and the Making of Thai Entrepreneurs.” Critique of Anthropology 19 (4): 401–422. doi:10.1177/0308275X9901900406.
- World Federation of Direct Selling Associations. 2022. “World Federation Statistical Database (2018-2021).” Retrieved August 25, 2022 https://wfdsa.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/WFDSA-Statistical-Database-2018-2021-.xlsx.
- Wrenn, Mary V., and William Waller. 2021. “Boss Babes and Predatory Optimism: Neoliberalism, Multi-Level Marketing Schemes, and Gender.” Journal of Economic Issues 55 (2): 423–431. doi:10.1080/00213624.2021.1908805.
- Yin, Robert K. 2014. Case Study Research Design and Methods. 5th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.